Glossary¶
>>>
The default Python prompt of the interactive shell. Often seen for code examples which can be executed interactively in the interpreter.
...
Can refer to:
The default Python prompt of the interactive shell when entering the code for an indented code block, when within a pair of matching left and right delimiters (parentheses, square brackets, curly braces or triple quotes), or after specifying a decorator.
The
Ellipsis
built-in constant.
- 2to3
A tool that tries to convert Python 2.x code to Python 3.x code by handling most of the incompatibilities which can be detected by parsing the source and traversing the parse tree.
2to3 is available in the standard library as
lib2to3
;a standalone entry point is provided asTools/scripts/2to3
.See 2to3 — Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation.- abstract base class
Abstract base classes complementduck-typingby providing a way to define interfaces when other techniques like
hasattr()
would be clumsy or subtly wrong (for example with magic methods). ABCs introduce virtual subclasses, which are classes that don’t inherit from a class but are still recognized byisinstance()
andissubclass()
;see theabc
module documentation. Python comes with many built-in ABCs for data structures (in thecollections.abc
module), numbers (in thenumbers
module), streams (in theio
module), import finders and loaders (in theimportlib.abc
module). You can create your own ABCs with theabc
module.- annotation
A label associated with a variable, a class attribute or a function parameter or return value, used by convention as atype hint.
Annotations of local variables cannot be accessed at runtime, but annotations of global variables, class attributes, and functions are stored in the
__annotations__
special attribute of modules, classes, and functions, respectively.Seevariable annotation,function annotation,PEP 484 andPEP 526,which describe this functionality. Also seeAnnotations Best Practices for best practices on working with annotations.
- argument
A value passed to afunction(ormethod) when calling the function. There are two kinds of argument:
keyword argument:an argument preceded by an identifier (e.g.
name=
) in a function call or passed as a value in a dictionary preceded by**
.For example,3
and5
are both keyword arguments in the following calls tocomplex()
:complex(real=3,imag=5) complex(**{'real':3,'imag':5})
positional argument:an argument that is not a keyword argument. Positional arguments can appear at the beginning of an argument list and/or be passed as elements of aniterablepreceded by
*
. For example,3
and5
are both positional arguments in the following calls:complex(3,5) complex(*(3,5))
Arguments are assigned to the named local variables in a function body. See theCallssection for the rules governing this assignment. Syntactically, any expression can be used to represent an argument; the evaluated value is assigned to the local variable.
See also theparameterglossary entry, the FAQ question on the difference between arguments and parameters,andPEP 362.
- asynchronous context manager
An object which controls the environment seen in an
asyncwith
statement by defining__aenter__()
and__aexit__()
methods. Introduced byPEP 492.- asynchronous generator
A function which returns anasynchronous generator iterator.It looks like a coroutine function defined with
asyncdef
except that it containsyield
expressions for producing a series of values usable in anasyncfor
loop.Usually refers to an asynchronous generator function, but may refer to an asynchronous generator iteratorin some contexts. In cases where the intended meaning isn’t clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity.
An asynchronous generator function may contain
await
expressions as well asasyncfor
,andasyncwith
statements.- asynchronous generator iterator
An object created by aasynchronous generatorfunction.
This is anasynchronous iteratorwhich when called using the
__anext__()
method returns an awaitable object which will execute the body of the asynchronous generator function until the nextyield
expression.Each
yield
temporarily suspends processing, remembering the location execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements). When theasynchronous generator iteratoreffectively resumes with another awaitable returned by__anext__()
,it picks up where it left off. SeePEP 492andPEP 525.- asynchronous iterable
An object, that can be used in an
asyncfor
statement. Must return anasynchronous iteratorfrom its__aiter__()
method. Introduced byPEP 492.- asynchronous iterator
An object that implements the
__aiter__()
and__anext__()
methods.__anext__
must return anawaitableobject.asyncfor
resolves the awaitables returned by an asynchronous iterator’s__anext__()
method until it raises aStopAsyncIteration
exception. Introduced byPEP 492.- attribute
A value associated with an object which is usually referenced by name using dotted expressions. For example, if an objectohas an attribute ait would be referenced aso.a.
It is possible to give an object an attribute whose name is not an identifier as defined byIdentifiers and keywords,for example using
setattr()
,if the object allows it. Such an attribute will not be accessible using a dotted expression, and would instead need to be retrieved withgetattr()
.- awaitable
An object that can be used in an
await
expression. Can be acoroutineor an object with an__await__()
method. See alsoPEP 492.- BDFL
Benevolent Dictator For Life, a.k.a.Guido van Rossum,Python’s creator.
- binary file
Afile objectable to read and write bytes-like objects. Examples of binary files are files opened in binary mode (
'rb'
,'wb'
or'rb+'
),sys.stdin.buffer
,sys.stdout.buffer
,and instances ofio.BytesIO
andgzip.GzipFile
.See alsotext filefor a file object able to read and write
str
objects.- borrowed reference
In Python’s C API, a borrowed reference is a reference to an object, where the code using the object does not own the reference. It becomes a dangling pointer if the object is destroyed. For example, a garbage collection can remove the laststrong referenceto the object and so destroy it.
Calling
Py_INCREF()
on theborrowed referenceis recommended to convert it to astrong referencein-place, except when the object cannot be destroyed before the last usage of the borrowed reference. ThePy_NewRef()
function can be used to create a new strong reference.- bytes-like object
An object that supports theBuffer Protocoland can export a C-contiguousbuffer. This includes all
bytes
,bytearray
,andarray.array
objects, as well as many commonmemoryview
objects. Bytes-like objects can be used for various operations that work with binary data; these include compression, saving to a binary file, and sending over a socket.Some operations need the binary data to be mutable. The documentation often refers to these as “read-write bytes-like objects”. Example mutable buffer objects include
bytearray
and amemoryview
of abytearray
. Other operations require the binary data to be stored in immutable objects ( “read-only bytes-like objects” ); examples of these includebytes
and amemoryview
of abytes
object.- bytecode
Python source code is compiled into bytecode, the internal representation of a Python program in the CPython interpreter. The bytecode is also cached in
.pyc
files so that executing the same file is faster the second time (recompilation from source to bytecode can be avoided). This “intermediate language” is said to run on a virtual machinethat executes the machine code corresponding to each bytecode. Do note that bytecodes are not expected to work between different Python virtual machines, nor to be stable between Python releases.A list of bytecode instructions can be found in the documentation for the dis module.
- callable
A callable is an object that can be called, possibly with a set of arguments (seeargument), with the following syntax:
callable(argument1,argument2,...)
Afunction,and by extension amethod,is a callable. An instance of a class that implements the
__call__()
method is also a callable.- callback
A subroutine function which is passed as an argument to be executed at some point in the future.
- class
A template for creating user-defined objects. Class definitions normally contain method definitions which operate on instances of the class.
- class variable
A variable defined in a class and intended to be modified only at class level (i.e., not in an instance of the class).
- coercion
The implicit conversion of an instance of one type to another during an operation which involves two arguments of the same type. For example,
int(3.15)
converts the floating point number to the integer3
,but in3+4.5
,each argument is of a different type (one int, one float), and both must be converted to the same type before they can be added or it will raise aTypeError
.Without coercion, all arguments of even compatible types would have to be normalized to the same value by the programmer, e.g.,float(3)+4.5
rather than just3+4.5
.- complex number
An extension of the familiar real number system in which all numbers are expressed as a sum of a real part and an imaginary part. Imaginary numbers are real multiples of the imaginary unit (the square root of
-1
), often writteni
in mathematics orj
in engineering. Python has built-in support for complex numbers, which are written with this latter notation; the imaginary part is written with aj
suffix, e.g.,3+1j
.To get access to complex equivalents of themath
module, usecmath
.Use of complex numbers is a fairly advanced mathematical feature. If you’re not aware of a need for them, it’s almost certain you can safely ignore them.- context manager
An object which controls the environment seen in a
with
statement by defining__enter__()
and__exit__()
methods. SeePEP 343.- context variable
A variable which can have different values depending on its context. This is similar to Thread-Local Storage in which each execution thread may have a different value for a variable. However, with context variables, there may be several contexts in one execution thread and the main usage for context variables is to keep track of variables in concurrent asynchronous tasks. See
contextvars
.- contiguous
A buffer is considered contiguous exactly if it is either C-contiguousorFortran contiguous.Zero-dimensional buffers are C and Fortran contiguous. In one-dimensional arrays, the items must be laid out in memory next to each other, in order of increasing indexes starting from zero. In multidimensional C-contiguous arrays, the last index varies the fastest when visiting items in order of memory address. However, in Fortran contiguous arrays, the first index varies the fastest.
- coroutine
Coroutines are a more generalized form of subroutines. Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another point. Coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points. They can be implemented with the
asyncdef
statement. See also PEP 492.- coroutine function
A function which returns acoroutineobject. A coroutine function may be defined with the
asyncdef
statement, and may containawait
,asyncfor
,andasyncwith
keywords. These were introduced byPEP 492.- CPython
The canonical implementation of the Python programming language, as distributed onPython.org.The term “CPython” is used when necessary to distinguish this implementation from others such as Jython or IronPython.
- decorator
A function returning another function, usually applied as a function transformation using the
@wrapper
syntax. Common examples for decorators areclassmethod()
andstaticmethod()
.The decorator syntax is merely syntactic sugar, the following two function definitions are semantically equivalent:
deff(arg): ... f=staticmethod(f) @staticmethod deff(arg): ...
The same concept exists for classes, but is less commonly used there. See the documentation forfunction definitionsand class definitionsfor more about decorators.
- descriptor
Any object which defines the methods
__get__()
,__set__()
,or__delete__()
.When a class attribute is a descriptor, its special binding behavior is triggered upon attribute lookup. Normally, using a.bto get, set or delete an attribute looks up the object namedbin the class dictionary fora,but ifbis a descriptor, the respective descriptor method gets called. Understanding descriptors is a key to a deep understanding of Python because they are the basis for many features including functions, methods, properties, class methods, static methods, and reference to super classes.For more information about descriptors’ methods, seeImplementing Descriptors or theDescriptor How To Guide.
- dictionary
An associative array, where arbitrary keys are mapped to values. The keys can be any object with
__hash__()
and__eq__()
methods. Called a hash in Perl.- dictionary comprehension
A compact way to process all or part of the elements in an iterable and return a dictionary with the results.
results={n:n**2fornin range(10)}
generates a dictionary containing keyn
mapped to valuen**2
.SeeDisplays for lists, sets and dictionaries.- dictionary view
The objects returned from
dict.keys()
,dict.values()
,anddict.items()
are called dictionary views. They provide a dynamic view on the dictionary’s entries, which means that when the dictionary changes, the view reflects these changes. To force the dictionary view to become a full list uselist(dictview)
.See Dictionary view objects.- docstring
A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class, function or module. While ignored when the suite is executed, it is recognized by the compiler and put into the
__doc__
attribute of the enclosing class, function or module. Since it is available via introspection, it is the canonical place for documentation of the object.- duck-typing
A programming style which does not look at an object’s type to determine if it has the right interface; instead, the method or attribute is simply called or used ( “If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it must be a duck.” ) By emphasizing interfaces rather than specific types, well-designed code improves its flexibility by allowing polymorphic substitution. Duck-typing avoids tests using
type()
orisinstance()
.(Note, however, that duck-typing can be complemented withabstract base classes.) Instead, it typically employshasattr()
tests orEAFPprogramming.- EAFP
Easier to ask for forgiveness than permission. This common Python coding style assumes the existence of valid keys or attributes and catches exceptions if the assumption proves false. This clean and fast style is characterized by the presence of many
try
andexcept
statements. The technique contrasts with theLBYLstyle common to many other languages such as C.- expression
A piece of syntax which can be evaluated to some value. In other words, an expression is an accumulation of expression elements like literals, names, attribute access, operators or function calls which all return a value. In contrast to many other languages, not all language constructs are expressions. There are alsostatements which cannot be used as expressions, such as
while
.Assignments are also statements, not expressions.- extension module
A module written in C or C++, using Python’s C API to interact with the core and with user code.
- f-string
String literals prefixed with
'f'
or'F'
are commonly called “f-strings” which is short for formatted string literals.See alsoPEP 498.- file object
An object exposing a file-oriented API (with methods such as
read()
orwrite()
) to an underlying resource. Depending on the way it was created, a file object can mediate access to a real on-disk file or to another type of storage or communication device (for example standard input/output, in-memory buffers, sockets, pipes, etc.). File objects are also calledfile-like objectsor streams.There are actually three categories of file objects: raw binary files,buffered binary filesandtext files. Their interfaces are defined in the
io
module. The canonical way to create a file object is by using theopen()
function.- file-like object
A synonym forfile object.
- filesystem encoding and error handler
Encoding and error handler used by Python to decode bytes from the operating system and encode Unicode to the operating system.
The filesystem encoding must guarantee to successfully decode all bytes below 128. If the file system encoding fails to provide this guarantee, API functions can raise
UnicodeError
.The
sys.getfilesystemencoding()
andsys.getfilesystemencodeerrors()
functions can be used to get the filesystem encoding and error handler.Thefilesystem encoding and error handlerare configured at Python startup by the
PyConfig_Read()
function: seefilesystem_encoding
andfilesystem_errors
members ofPyConfig
.See also thelocale encoding.
- finder
An object that tries to find theloaderfor a module that is being imported.
Since Python 3.3, there are two types of finder:meta path findersfor use with
sys.meta_path
,andpath entry findersfor use withsys.path_hooks
.- floor division
Mathematical division that rounds down to nearest integer. The floor division operator is
//
.For example, the expression11//4
evaluates to2
in contrast to the2.75
returned by float true division. Note that(-11)//4
is-3
because that is-2.75
roundeddownward.SeePEP 238.- function
A series of statements which returns some value to a caller. It can also be passed zero or moreargumentswhich may be used in the execution of the body. See alsoparameter,method, and theFunction definitionssection.
- function annotation
Anannotationof a function parameter or return value.
Function annotations are usually used for type hints:for example, this function is expected to take two
int
arguments and is also expected to have anint
return value:defsum_two_numbers(a:int,b:int)->int: returna+b
Function annotation syntax is explained in sectionFunction definitions.
Seevariable annotationandPEP 484, which describe this functionality. Also seeAnnotations Best Practices for best practices on working with annotations.
- __future__
Afuture statement,
from__future__import<feature>
, directs the compiler to compile the current module using syntax or semantics that will become standard in a future release of Python. The__future__
module documents the possible values of feature.By importing this module and evaluating its variables, you can see when a new feature was first added to the language and when it will (or did) become the default:>>>import__future__ >>>__future__.division _Feature((2, 2, 0, ' Alpha ', 2), (3, 0, 0, ' Alpha ', 0), 8192)
- garbage collection
The process of freeing memory when it is not used anymore. Python performs garbage collection via reference counting and a cyclic garbage collector that is able to detect and break reference cycles. The garbage collector can be controlled using the
gc
module.- generator
A function which returns agenerator iterator.It looks like a normal function except that it contains
yield
expressions for producing a series of values usable in a for-loop or that can be retrieved one at a time with thenext()
function.Usually refers to a generator function, but may refer to a generator iteratorin some contexts. In cases where the intended meaning isn’t clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity.
- generator iterator
An object created by ageneratorfunction.
Each
yield
temporarily suspends processing, remembering the location execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements). When thegenerator iteratorresumes, it picks up where it left off (in contrast to functions which start fresh on every invocation).- generator expression
An expression that returns an iterator. It looks like a normal expression followed by a
for
clause defining a loop variable, range, and an optionalif
clause. The combined expression generates values for an enclosing function:>>>sum(i*iforiinrange(10))# sum of squares 0, 1, 4,... 81 285
- generic function
A function composed of multiple functions implementing the same operation for different types. Which implementation should be used during a call is determined by the dispatch algorithm.
See also thesingle dispatchglossary entry, the
functools.singledispatch()
decorator, andPEP 443.- generic type
Atypethat can be parameterized; typically a container classsuch as
list
ordict
.Used fortype hintsand annotations.For more details, seegeneric alias types, PEP 483,PEP 484,PEP 585,and the
typing
module.- GIL
- global interpreter lock
The mechanism used by theCPythoninterpreter to assure that only one thread executes Pythonbytecodeat a time. This simplifies the CPython implementation by making the object model (including critical built-in types such as
dict
) implicitly safe against concurrent access. Locking the entire interpreter makes it easier for the interpreter to be multi-threaded, at the expense of much of the parallelism afforded by multi-processor machines.However, some extension modules, either standard or third-party, are designed so as to release the GIL when doing computationally intensive tasks such as compression or hashing. Also, the GIL is always released when doing I/O.
Past efforts to create a “free-threaded” interpreter (one which locks shared data at a much finer granularity) have not been successful because performance suffered in the common single-processor case. It is believed that overcoming this performance issue would make the implementation much more complicated and therefore costlier to maintain.
- hash-based pyc
A bytecode cache file that uses the hash rather than the last-modified time of the corresponding source file to determine its validity. See Cached bytecode invalidation.
- hashable
An object ishashableif it has a hash value which never changes during its lifetime (it needs a
__hash__()
method), and can be compared to other objects (it needs an__eq__()
method). Hashable objects which compare equal must have the same hash value.Hashability makes an object usable as a dictionary key and a set member, because these data structures use the hash value internally.
Most of Python’s immutable built-in objects are hashable; mutable containers (such as lists or dictionaries) are not; immutable containers (such as tuples and frozensets) are only hashable if their elements are hashable. Objects which are instances of user-defined classes are hashable by default. They all compare unequal (except with themselves), and their hash value is derived from their
id()
.- IDLE
An Integrated Development and Learning Environment for Python. IDLEis a basic editor and interpreter environment which ships with the standard distribution of Python.
- immutable
An object with a fixed value. Immutable objects include numbers, strings and tuples. Such an object cannot be altered. A new object has to be created if a different value has to be stored. They play an important role in places where a constant hash value is needed, for example as a key in a dictionary.
- import path
A list of locations (orpath entries) that are searched by thepath based finderfor modules to import. During import, this list of locations usually comes from
sys.path
,but for subpackages it may also come from the parent package’s__path__
attribute.- importing
The process by which Python code in one module is made available to Python code in another module.
- importer
An object that both finds and loads a module; both a finderandloaderobject.
- interactive
Python has an interactive interpreter which means you can enter statements and expressions at the interpreter prompt, immediately execute them and see their results. Just launch
Python
with no arguments (possibly by selecting it from your computer’s main menu). It is a very powerful way to test out new ideas or inspect modules and packages (rememberhelp(x)
).- interpreted
Python is an interpreted language, as opposed to a compiled one, though the distinction can be blurry because of the presence of the bytecode compiler. This means that source files can be run directly without explicitly creating an executable which is then run. Interpreted languages typically have a shorter development/debug cycle than compiled ones, though their programs generally also run more slowly. See alsointeractive.
- interpreter shutdown
When asked to shut down, the Python interpreter enters a special phase where it gradually releases all allocated resources, such as modules and various critical internal structures. It also makes several calls to thegarbage collector.This can trigger the execution of code in user-defined destructors or weakref callbacks. Code executed during the shutdown phase can encounter various exceptions as the resources it relies on may not function anymore (common examples are library modules or the warnings machinery).
The main reason for interpreter shutdown is that the
__main__
module or the script being run has finished executing.- iterable
An object capable of returning its members one at a time. Examples of iterables include all sequence types (such as
list
,str
, andtuple
) and some non-sequence types likedict
, file objects,and objects of any classes you define with an__iter__()
method or with a__getitem__()
method that implementsSequencesemantics.Iterables can be used in a
for
loop and in many other places where a sequence is needed (zip()
,map()
,…). When an iterable object is passed as an argument to the built-in functioniter()
,it returns an iterator for the object. This iterator is good for one pass over the set of values. When using iterables, it is usually not necessary to calliter()
or deal with iterator objects yourself. Thefor
statement does that automatically for you, creating a temporary unnamed variable to hold the iterator for the duration of the loop. See also iterator,sequence,andgenerator.- iterator
An object representing a stream of data. Repeated calls to the iterator’s
__next__()
method (or passing it to the built-in functionnext()
) return successive items in the stream. When no more data are available aStopIteration
exception is raised instead. At this point, the iterator object is exhausted and any further calls to its__next__()
method just raiseStopIteration
again. Iterators are required to have an__iter__()
method that returns the iterator object itself so every iterator is also iterable and may be used in most places where other iterables are accepted. One notable exception is code which attempts multiple iteration passes. A container object (such as alist
) produces a fresh new iterator each time you pass it to theiter()
function or use it in afor
loop. Attempting this with an iterator will just return the same exhausted iterator object used in the previous iteration pass, making it appear like an empty container.More information can be found inIterator Types.
CPython implementation detail:CPython does not consistently apply the requirement that an iterator define
__iter__()
.- key function
A key function or collation function is a callable that returns a value used for sorting or ordering. For example,
locale.strxfrm()
is used to produce a sort key that is aware of locale specific sort conventions.A number of tools in Python accept key functions to control how elements are ordered or grouped. They include
min()
,max()
,sorted()
,list.sort()
,heapq.merge()
,heapq.nsmallest()
,heapq.nlargest()
,anditertools.groupby()
.There are several ways to create a key function. For example. the
str.lower()
method can serve as a key function for case insensitive sorts. Alternatively, a key function can be built from alambda
expression such aslambdar:(r[0],r[2])
.Also, theoperator
module provides three key function constructors:attrgetter()
,itemgetter()
,andmethodcaller()
.See theSorting HOW TOfor examples of how to create and use key functions.- keyword argument
Seeargument.
- lambda
An anonymous inline function consisting of a singleexpression which is evaluated when the function is called. The syntax to create a lambda function is
lambda[parameters]:expression
- LBYL
Look before you leap. This coding style explicitly tests for pre-conditions before making calls or lookups. This style contrasts with theEAFPapproach and is characterized by the presence of many
if
statements.In a multi-threaded environment, the LBYL approach can risk introducing a race condition between “the looking” and “the leaping”. For example, the code,
ifkeyinmapping:returnmapping[key]
can fail if another thread removeskeyfrommappingafter the test, but before the lookup. This issue can be solved with locks or by using the EAFP approach.- locale encoding
On Unix, it is the encoding of the LC_CTYPE locale. It can be set with
locale.setlocale(locale.LC_CTYPE,new_locale)
.On Windows, it is the ANSI code page (ex:
cp1252
).locale.getpreferredencoding(False)
can be used to get the locale encoding.Python uses thefilesystem encoding and error handlerto convert between Unicode filenames and bytes filenames.
- list
A built-in Pythonsequence.Despite its name it is more akin to an array in other languages than to a linked list since access to elements is O(1).
- list comprehension
A compact way to process all or part of the elements in a sequence and return a list with the results.
result=['{:#04x}'.format(x)forxin range(256)ifx%2==0]
generates a list of strings containing even hex numbers (0x..) in the range from 0 to 255. Theif
clause is optional. If omitted, all elements inrange(256)
are processed.- loader
An object that loads a module. It must define a method named
load_module()
.A loader is typically returned by a finder.SeePEP 302for details andimportlib.abc.Loader
for anabstract base class.- magic method
An informal synonym forspecial method.
- mapping
A container object that supports arbitrary key lookups and implements the methods specified in the
Mapping
orMutableMapping
abstract base classes.Examples includedict
,collections.defaultdict
,collections.OrderedDict
andcollections.Counter
.- meta path finder
Afinderreturned by a search of
sys.meta_path
.Meta path finders are related to, but different frompath entry finders.See
importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder
for the methods that meta path finders implement.- metaclass
The class of a class. Class definitions create a class name, a class dictionary, and a list of base classes. The metaclass is responsible for taking those three arguments and creating the class. Most object oriented programming languages provide a default implementation. What makes Python special is that it is possible to create custom metaclasses. Most users never need this tool, but when the need arises, metaclasses can provide powerful, elegant solutions. They have been used for logging attribute access, adding thread-safety, tracking object creation, implementing singletons, and many other tasks.
More information can be found inMetaclasses.
- method
A function which is defined inside a class body. If called as an attribute of an instance of that class, the method will get the instance object as its firstargument(which is usually called
self
). Seefunctionandnested scope.- method resolution order
Method Resolution Order is the order in which base classes are searched for a member during lookup. SeeThe Python 2.3 Method Resolution Orderfor details of the algorithm used by the Python interpreter since the 2.3 release.
- module
An object that serves as an organizational unit of Python code. Modules have a namespace containing arbitrary Python objects. Modules are loaded into Python by the process ofimporting.
See alsopackage.
- module spec
A namespace containing the import-related information used to load a module. An instance of
importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec
.- MRO
- mutable
Mutable objects can change their value but keep their
id()
.See alsoimmutable.- named tuple
The term “named tuple” applies to any type or class that inherits from tuple and whose indexable elements are also accessible using named attributes. The type or class may have other features as well.
Several built-in types are named tuples, including the values returned by
time.localtime()
andos.stat()
.Another example issys.float_info
:>>>sys.float_info[1]# indexed access 1024 >>>sys.float_info.max_exp# named field access 1024 >>>isinstance(sys.float_info,tuple)# kind of tuple True
Some named tuples are built-in types (such as the above examples). Alternatively, a named tuple can be created from a regular class definition that inherits from
tuple
and that defines named fields. Such a class can be written by hand or it can be created with the factory functioncollections.namedtuple()
.The latter technique also adds some extra methods that may not be found in hand-written or built-in named tuples.- namespace
The place where a variable is stored. Namespaces are implemented as dictionaries. There are the local, global and built-in namespaces as well as nested namespaces in objects (in methods). Namespaces support modularity by preventing naming conflicts. For instance, the functions
builtins.open
andos.open()
are distinguished by their namespaces. Namespaces also aid readability and maintainability by making it clear which module implements a function. For instance, writingrandom.seed()
oritertools.islice()
makes it clear that those functions are implemented by therandom
anditertools
modules, respectively.- namespace package
APEP 420packagewhich serves only as a container for subpackages. Namespace packages may have no physical representation, and specifically are not like aregular packagebecause they have no
__init__.py
file.See alsomodule.
- nested scope
The ability to refer to a variable in an enclosing definition. For instance, a function defined inside another function can refer to variables in the outer function. Note that nested scopes by default work only for reference and not for assignment. Local variables both read and write in the innermost scope. Likewise, global variables read and write to the global namespace. The
nonlocal
allows writing to outer scopes.- new-style class
Old name for the flavor of classes now used for all class objects. In earlier Python versions, only new-style classes could use Python’s newer, versatile features like
__slots__
,descriptors, properties,__getattribute__()
,class methods, and static methods.- object
Any data with state (attributes or value) and defined behavior (methods). Also the ultimate base class of anynew-style class.
- package
A Pythonmodulewhich can contain submodules or recursively, subpackages. Technically, a package is a Python module with a
__path__
attribute.See alsoregular packageandnamespace package.
- parameter
A named entity in afunction(or method) definition that specifies anargument(or in some cases, arguments) that the function can accept. There are five kinds of parameter:
positional-or-keyword:specifies an argument that can be passed eitherpositionallyor as akeyword argument.This is the default kind of parameter, for examplefoo andbarin the following:
deffunc(foo,bar=None):...
positional-only:specifies an argument that can be supplied only by position. Positional-only parameters can be defined by including a
/
character in the parameter list of the function definition after them, for exampleposonly1andposonly2in the following:deffunc(posonly1,posonly2,/,positional_or_keyword):...
keyword-only:specifies an argument that can be supplied only by keyword. Keyword-only parameters can be defined by including a single var-positional parameter or bare
*
in the parameter list of the function definition before them, for examplekw_only1and kw_only2in the following:deffunc(arg,*,kw_only1,kw_only2):...
var-positional:specifies that an arbitrary sequence of positional arguments can be provided (in addition to any positional arguments already accepted by other parameters). Such a parameter can be defined by prepending the parameter name with
*
,for example argsin the following:deffunc(*args,**kwargs):...
var-keyword:specifies that arbitrarily many keyword arguments can be provided (in addition to any keyword arguments already accepted by other parameters). Such a parameter can be defined by prepending the parameter name with
**
,for examplekwargsin the example above.
Parameters can specify both optional and required arguments, as well as default values for some optional arguments.
See also theargumentglossary entry, the FAQ question on the difference between arguments and parameters,the
inspect.Parameter
class, the Function definitionssection, andPEP 362.- path entry
A single location on theimport pathwhich thepath based finderconsults to find modules for importing.
- path entry finder
Afinderreturned by a callable on
sys.path_hooks
(i.e. apath entry hook) which knows how to locate modules given apath entry.See
importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder
for the methods that path entry finders implement.- path entry hook
A callable on the
sys.path_hook
list which returns apath entry finderif it knows how to find modules on a specificpath entry.- path based finder
One of the defaultmeta path finderswhich searches animport pathfor modules.
- path-like object
An object representing a file system path. A path-like object is either a
str
orbytes
object representing a path, or an object implementing theos.PathLike
protocol. An object that supports theos.PathLike
protocol can be converted to astr
orbytes
file system path by calling theos.fspath()
function;os.fsdecode()
andos.fsencode()
can be used to guarantee astr
orbytes
result instead, respectively. Introduced byPEP 519.- PEP
Python Enhancement Proposal. A PEP is a design document providing information to the Python community, or describing a new feature for Python or its processes or environment. PEPs should provide a concise technical specification and a rationale for proposed features.
PEPs are intended to be the primary mechanisms for proposing major new features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python. The PEP author is responsible for building consensus within the community and documenting dissenting opinions.
SeePEP 1.
- portion
A set of files in a single directory (possibly stored in a zip file) that contribute to a namespace package, as defined inPEP 420.
- positional argument
Seeargument.
- provisional API
A provisional API is one which has been deliberately excluded from the standard library’s backwards compatibility guarantees. While major changes to such interfaces are not expected, as long as they are marked provisional, backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the interface) may occur if deemed necessary by core developers. Such changes will not be made gratuitously – they will occur only if serious fundamental flaws are uncovered that were missed prior to the inclusion of the API.
Even for provisional APIs, backwards incompatible changes are seen as a “solution of last resort” - every attempt will still be made to find a backwards compatible resolution to any identified problems.
This process allows the standard library to continue to evolve over time, without locking in problematic design errors for extended periods of time. SeePEP 411for more details.
- provisional package
Seeprovisional API.
- Python 3000
Nickname for the Python 3.x release line (coined long ago when the release of version 3 was something in the distant future.) This is also abbreviated “Py3k”.
- Pythonic
An idea or piece of code which closely follows the most common idioms of the Python language, rather than implementing code using concepts common to other languages. For example, a common idiom in Python is to loop over all elements of an iterable using a
for
statement. Many other languages don’t have this type of construct, so people unfamiliar with Python sometimes use a numerical counter instead:foriinrange(len(food)): print(food[i])
As opposed to the cleaner, Pythonic method:
forpieceinfood: print(piece)
- qualified name
A dotted name showing the “path” from a module’s global scope to a class, function or method defined in that module, as defined in PEP 3155.For top-level functions and classes, the qualified name is the same as the object’s name:
>>>classC: ...classD: ...defmeth(self): ...pass ... >>>C.__qualname__ 'C' >>>C.D.__qualname__ 'C.D' >>>C.D.meth.__qualname__ 'C.D.meth'
When used to refer to modules, thefully qualified namemeans the entire dotted path to the module, including any parent packages, e.g.
email.mime.text
:>>>importemail.mime.text >>>email.mime.text.__name__ 'email.mime.text'
- reference count
The number of references to an object. When the reference count of an object drops to zero, it is deallocated. Reference counting is generally not visible to Python code, but it is a key element of the CPythonimplementation. The
sys
module defines agetrefcount()
function that programmers can call to return the reference count for a particular object.- regular package
A traditionalpackage,such as a directory containing an
__init__.py
file.See alsonamespace package.
- __slots__
A declaration inside a class that saves memory by pre-declaring space for instance attributes and eliminating instance dictionaries. Though popular, the technique is somewhat tricky to get right and is best reserved for rare cases where there are large numbers of instances in a memory-critical application.
- sequence
Aniterablewhich supports efficient element access using integer indices via the
__getitem__()
special method and defines a__len__()
method that returns the length of the sequence. Some built-in sequence types arelist
,str
,tuple
,andbytes
.Note thatdict
also supports__getitem__()
and__len__()
,but is considered a mapping rather than a sequence because the lookups use arbitrary immutablekeys rather than integers.The
collections.abc.Sequence
abstract base class defines a much richer interface that goes beyond just__getitem__()
and__len__()
,addingcount()
,index()
,__contains__()
,and__reversed__()
.Types that implement this expanded interface can be registered explicitly usingregister()
.- set comprehension
A compact way to process all or part of the elements in an iterable and return a set with the results.
results={cforcin'abracadabra'if cnotin'abc'}
generates the set of strings{'r','d'}
.See Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries.- single dispatch
A form ofgeneric functiondispatch where the implementation is chosen based on the type of a single argument.
- slice
An object usually containing a portion of asequence.A slice is created using the subscript notation,
[]
with colons between numbers when several are given, such as invariable_name[1:3:5]
.The bracket (subscript) notation usesslice
objects internally.- special method
A method that is called implicitly by Python to execute a certain operation on a type, such as addition. Such methods have names starting and ending with double underscores. Special methods are documented in Special method names.
- statement
A statement is part of a suite (a “block” of code). A statement is either anexpressionor one of several constructs with a keyword, such as
if
,while
orfor
.- strong reference
In Python’s C API, a strong reference is a reference to an object which is owned by the code holding the reference. The strong reference is taken by calling
Py_INCREF()
when the reference is created and released withPy_DECREF()
when the reference is deleted.The
Py_NewRef()
function can be used to create a strong reference to an object. Usually, thePy_DECREF()
function must be called on the strong reference before exiting the scope of the strong reference, to avoid leaking one reference.See alsoborrowed reference.
- text encoding
A string in Python is a sequence of Unicode code points (in range
U+0000
–U+10FFFF
). To store or transfer a string, it needs to be serialized as a sequence of bytes.Serializing a string into a sequence of bytes is known as “encoding”, and recreating the string from the sequence of bytes is known as “decoding”.
There are a variety of different text serialization codecs,which are collectively referred to as “text encodings”.
- text file
Afile objectable to read and write
str
objects. Often, a text file actually accesses a byte-oriented datastream and handles thetext encodingautomatically. Examples of text files are files opened in text mode ('r'
or'w'
),sys.stdin
,sys.stdout
,and instances ofio.StringIO
.See alsobinary filefor a file object able to read and write bytes-like objects.
- triple-quoted string
A string which is bound by three instances of either a quotation mark (” ) or an apostrophe (‘). While they don’t provide any functionality not available with single-quoted strings, they are useful for a number of reasons. They allow you to include unescaped single and double quotes within a string and they can span multiple lines without the use of the continuation character, making them especially useful when writing docstrings.
- type
The type of a Python object determines what kind of object it is; every object has a type. An object’s type is accessible as its
__class__
attribute or can be retrieved withtype(obj)
.- type alias
A synonym for a type, created by assigning the type to an identifier.
Type aliases are useful for simplifyingtype hints. For example:
defremove_gray_shades( colors:list[tuple[int,int,int]])->list[tuple[int,int,int]]: pass
could be made more readable like this:
Color=tuple[int,int,int] defremove_gray_shades(colors:list[Color])->list[Color]: pass
- type hint
Anannotationthat specifies the expected type for a variable, a class attribute, or a function parameter or return value.
Type hints are optional and are not enforced by Python but they are useful to static type analysis tools, and aid IDEs with code completion and refactoring.
Type hints of global variables, class attributes, and functions, but not local variables, can be accessed using
typing.get_type_hints()
.- universal newlines
A manner of interpreting text streams in which all of the following are recognized as ending a line: the Unix end-of-line convention
'\n'
, the Windows convention'\r\n'
,and the old Macintosh convention'\r'
.SeePEP 278andPEP 3116,as well asbytes.splitlines()
for an additional use.- variable annotation
Anannotationof a variable or a class attribute.
When annotating a variable or a class attribute, assignment is optional:
classC: field:'annotation'
Variable annotations are usually used for type hints:for example this variable is expected to take
int
values:count:int=0
Variable annotation syntax is explained in sectionAnnotated assignment statements.
Seefunction annotation,PEP 484 andPEP 526,which describe this functionality. Also seeAnnotations Best Practices for best practices on working with annotations.
- virtual environment
A cooperatively isolated runtime environment that allows Python users and applications to install and upgrade Python distribution packages without interfering with the behaviour of other Python applications running on the same system.
See also
venv
.- virtual machine
A computer defined entirely in software. Python’s virtual machine executes thebytecodeemitted by the bytecode compiler.
- Zen of Python
Listing of Python design principles and philosophies that are helpful in understanding and using the language. The listing can be found by typing “
importthis
”at the interactive prompt.