Hillbilly

This article is about "hillbilly" as a slang term. For the historical subculture, seeMountain White.For different connotations, seeCountry (identity).

Hillbillyis a term for people who dwell inrural,mountainous areas in theUnited States,primarily in theAppalachian regionandOzarks.As people migrated out of the region during theGreat Depression,the term spread northward and westward with them.

TheHatfieldclan (1897)

The usage of the term hillbilly as a descriptor receives mixed perceptions, often in part due to the nature in which it is used. It may be used inin-groupsas a point of pride, while others consider its usagederogatory,especially when used as an insult.

The first known instances of "hillbilly" in print were inThe Railroad Trainmen's Journal(vol. ix, July 1892),an 1899 photograph of men and women inWest Virginialabeled "Camp Hillbilly",and a 1900New York Journalarticle containing the definition: "a Hill-Billie is a free and untrammeled white citizen ofAlabama,who lives in the hills, has no means to speak of, dresses as he can, talks as he pleases, drinks whiskey when he gets it, and fires off his revolver as the fancy takes him ".Thestereotypeis twofold in that it incorporates both positive and negative traits: "Hillbillies" are often considered independent and self-reliant individuals who resist the modernization of society, but at the same time they are also defined as backward and violent. Scholars argue this duality is reflective of the split ethnic identities in white America.The term's later usage extended beyond solely white communities, exemplified with the "Hispanic hillbillies of northernNew Mexico",in reference to theHispanos of New Mexico.

Etymology

The term "hillbilly" is Scottish in origin but is not derived from itsdialect.In Scotland, the term "hill-folk" referred to people who preferred isolation from the greater society, and "billy" meant "comrade" or "companion". The words "hill-folk" and "Billie" were combined and applied to theCameronianswho followed the teachings of a militantPresbyteriannamedRichard Cameron.TheseScottish Covenantersfled to the hills of southern Scotland in the late 17th century to avoid persecution for their religious beliefs.

Many of the early settlers of theThirteen Colonieswere from Scotland andNorthern Irelandand were followers ofWilliam of Orange,theProtestantking of England, Ireland and Scotland. In 17th century Ireland, during theWilliamite War,Protestant supporters of William III ( "King Billy" ) were referred to as "Billy's Boys" because 'Billy' is a diminutive of 'William' (common across both Britain and Ireland). In time the term hillbilly became synonymous with theWilliamiteswho settled in the hills of North America.

Some scholars disagree with this theory. Michael Montgomery'sFrom Ulster to America: The Scotch-Irish Heritage of American Englishstates, "InUlsterin recent years it has sometimes been supposed that [hillbilly] was coined to refer to followers of King William III and brought to America by early Ulster emigrants, but this derivation is almost certainly incorrect.... In Americahillbillywas first attested only in 1898, which suggests a later, independent development. "

History

TheAppalachian Mountainswere settled in the 18th century by settlers primarily from England, lowland Scotland, and the province ofUlsterinIreland.The settlers from Ulster were mainlyProtestantswho migrated to Ireland from LowlandScotlandandNorthern Englandduring thePlantation of Ulsterin the 17th century. Many further migrated to the American colonies beginning in the 1730s, and in America became known as theScots-Irishalthough this term is inaccurate as they were also of Northern English descent.

The term "hillbilly" spread in the years following theAmerican Civil War.At this time, the country was developing both technologically and socially, but the Appalachian region was falling behind. Before the war, Appalachia was not distinctively different from other rural areas of the country. Post-war, although thefrontierpushed farther west, the region retained frontier characteristics. The Appalachian people themselves were perceived as backward, quick to violence, and inbred in their isolation. Fueled by news stories of mountain feuds such as that in the 1880s between theHatfields and McCoys,the hillbilly stereotype developed in the late 19th to early 20th century.

The term "hillbilly" was used by members of thePlanter's Protection Association,a tobacco farmers union that formed in the Black Patch region of Kentucky, to refer to non-unionscabfarmers who did not join the organization.

The "classic" hillbilly stereotype reached its current characterization during the years of theGreat Depression.The period of Appalachian out-migration, roughly from the 1930s through the 1950s, saw many mountain residents moving north to the Midwestern industrial cities ofChicago,Cleveland,Akron,andDetroit.

This movement to Northern society, which became known as the "Hillbilly Highway",brought these previously isolated communities into mainstream United States culture. In response, poor white mountaineers became central characters in newspapers, pamphlets, and eventually, motion pictures. Authors at the time were inspired by historical figures such asDavy CrockettandDaniel Boone.The mountaineer image transferred over to the 20th century where the "hillbilly" stereotype emerged.

In popular culture

"Hillbilly shot glass" inscribed on a wooden shot glass at a gift shop inNashville, Indiana

Pop culture has perpetuated the "hillbilly" stereotype. Scholarly works suggest that the media has exploited both the Appalachian region and people by classifying them as "hillbillies". These generalizations do not match the cultural experiences of Appalachians. Appalachians, like many other groups, do not subscribe to a singleidentity.One of the issues associated with stereotyping is that it is profitable. When "hillbilly" became a widely used term, entrepreneurs saw a window for potential revenue. They "recycled" the image and brought it to life through various forms of media.

The comics portrayed hillbilly stereotypes, notably in two strips,Li'l AbnerandSnuffy Smith.Both characters were introduced in 1934.

Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis(2016) is a memoir byJD Vanceabout the Appalachian values of his upbringing and their relationship to the social problems of his hometown,Middletown, Ohio.The book toppedThe New York TimesBest Seller listin August 2016.

A family of "Hill People", who are employed as migrant workers on a farm in 1952 Arkansas, have a major role inJohn Grisham's bookA Painted House,with Grisham trying to avoid stereotypes.

Film and television

Buddy Ebsen and Irene Ryan fromThe Beverly Hillbilliesin 1970

Television and film have portrayed "hillbillies" in both derogatory and sympathetic terms. Films such asSergeant Yorkor theMa and Pa Kettleseries portrayed the "hillbilly" as wild but good-natured. Television programs of the 1960s such asThe Real McCoys,The Andy Griffith Show,and especiallyThe Beverly Hillbillies,portrayed the "hillbilly" as backwards but with enough wisdom to outwit more sophisticated city folk.Gunsmoke'sFestus Haggen was portrayed as intelligent and quick-witted (but lacking "education" ).

The popular 1970s television variety showHee Hawregularly lampooned the stereotypical "hillbilly" lifestyle. A darker negative image of the hillbilly was introduced to another generation in the filmDeliverance(1972), based on anovel of the same namebyJames Dickey,which depicted some "hillbillies" as genetically deficient,inbred,and murderous.

The Texas Chainsaw Massacreand its sequels hasLeatherfaceand his family, the Sawyers, portray a particularly violent "Hillbilly" stereotype that is common in horror films. The Texas Chainsaw Massacre movie series is thought to have paved the way for the countless horror films featuring deranged and often cannibalistic "Hillbillies" that have since become a staple of the horror genre.

Similar "evil hillbilly people" -type have also been seen in a more comical light in the 1988 horror filmThe Moonlight Sonata,but the 2010 horror comedy filmTucker & Dale vs. Evileven parodies hillbilly stereotyping. More recently, the TV seriesJustified(2010–2015) was centered around deputy U. S. Marshal Raylan Givens who was reassigned to his hometown inHarlan, Kentuckywhere he was in conflict with Boyd Crowder, a drug dealer who had grown up with Raylan. The show's plots often included "hillbilly" tropes such as dimwitted and easily manipulated men, use of homemade drugs, and snake-handling revivalists.

"Hillbillies" became a frequent gimmick inprofessional wrestling,usually portrayed as simple but amiablefan favourites.An early example of this character was Whiskers Savage (born Edward Civil, 1899–1967) who was promoted as a "bumpkin" persona as early as 1928.During the 1960s and 1970s, twosuperheavyweightwrestlers (and frequenttag teampartners)Haystacks CalhounandMan Mountain Mikeboth portrayed "country boys" in overalls and carrying lucky horseshoes. In theWWFin the 1980s,Hillbilly Jim,depicted as a protegé ofHulk Hogan,led a faction of "hillbillies" includingUncle Elmer,Cousin LukeandCousin Junior.

"Hillbillies" were at the center of reality television in the 21st century. Network television shows such asThe Real Beverly Hillbillies,High Life,andThe Simple Lifedisplayed the "hillbilly" lifestyle for viewers in the United States. This sparked protests across the country with rural-minded individuals gathering to fight the stereotype. The Center for Rural Strategies started a nationwide campaign stating the stereotype was "politically incorrect". The Kentucky-based organization engaged political figures in the movement such asRobert ByrdandMike Huckabee.Both protestors argued that the discrimination of any other group in United States would not be tolerated, so neither should the discrimination against rural U.S. citizens. A 2003 piece published byThe Cincinnati Enquirerread, "In this day of hypersensitivity to diversity and political correctness, Appalachians have been a group that it is still socially acceptable to demean and joke about... But rural folks have spoken up and said 'enough' to the Hollywood mockers."

Music

Main articles:Appalachian music,Cajun music,Country music,Old-time music,andWestern music (North America)

Migrant family fromArkansasplaying hill-billy songs (1939)

Hillbilly musicwas at one time considered an acceptable label for what is now known ascountry music.The label, coined in 1925 by country pianistAl Hopkins,persisted until the 1950s.

The "hillbilly music" categorization covers a wide variety of musical genres including bluegrass, country, western, and gospel. Appalachian folk song existed long before the "hillbilly" label. When the commercial industry was combined with "traditional Appalachian folksong", "hillbilly music" was formed. Some argue this is a "High Culture" issue where sophisticated individuals may see something considered "unsophisticated" as "trash".

In the early-20th century, artists began to utilize the "hillbilly" label. The term gained momentum due toRalph Peer,the recording director ofOKeh Records,who heard it being used among Southerners when he went down to Virginia to record the music and labeled all Southern country music as so from then on.The York Brothersentitled one of their songs "Hillbilly Rose" andthe Delmore Brothersfollowed with their song "Hillbilly Boogie". In 1927, theGennettstudios inRichmond, Indiana,made a recording of black fiddlerJim Booker.The recordings were labeled "made for Hillbilly" in the Gennett files and were marketed to a white audience. Columbia Records had much success with the "Hill Billies" featuringAl HopkinsandFiddlin' Charlie Bowman.

By the late-1940s, radio stations started to use the "hillbilly music" label. Originally, "hillbilly" was used to describe fiddlers andstring bands,but now it was used to describe traditional Appalachian music. Appalachians had never used this term to describe their own music. Popular songs whose style bore characteristics of both hillbilly andAfrican Americanmusic were referred to ashillbilly boogieandrockabilly.Elvis Presleywas a prominent player of rockabilly and was known early in his career as the "Hillbilly Cat".

When the Country Music Association was founded in 1958, the termhillbilly musicgradually fell out of use. The music industry merged hillbilly music,Western swing,andCowboy music,to form the current category C&W,Country and Western.

Some artists (notablyHank Williams) and fans were offended by the "hillbilly music" label. While the term is not used as frequently today, it is still used on occasion to refer toold-time musicorbluegrass.For example,WHRBbroadcasts a popular weekly radio show entitled "Hillbilly at Harvard". The show is devoted to playing a mix ofold-time music,bluegrass,and traditionalcountry and western.

Video games

Many video games feature plots, subplots or characters that utilize the Hillbilly stereotype for narrative purposes and cultural signifiers. Some notable examples of this include theSilent Hillvideo game series,Fallout 3,Fallout 76,Dead by Daylight,Grand Theft Auto V,Red Dead Redemption 2,Resident Evil 4andResident Evil 7.

Cultural implications

The hillbilly stereotype is considered to have had a traumatizing effect on some in the Appalachian region. Feelings of shame, self-hatred, and detachment are cited as a result of "culturally transmitted traumatic stress syndrome". Appalachian scholars say that the large-scale stereotyping has rewritten Appalachian history, making Appalachians feel particularly vulnerable. "Hillbilly" has now become part of Appalachian identity and some Appalachians feel they are constantly defending themselves against this image.

The stereotyping also has political implications for the region. There is a sense of "perceived history" that prevents many political issues from receiving adequate attention. Appalachians are often blamed for economic struggles. "Moonshiners, welfare cheats, and coal miners" are stereotypes stemming from the greater hillbilly stereotype in the region. Thisprejudicehas been said to serve as a barrier for addressing some serious issues such as the economy and the environment.

Despite the political and social difficulties associated with stereotyping, Appalachians have organized to enact change. TheWar on Povertyis sometimes considered to be an example of one effort that allowed for Appalachian community organization.Grassrootsmovements, protests, and strikes are common in the area, though not always successful.

Intragroup versus intergroup usage

TheSpringfield, MissouriChamber of Commerce once presented dignitaries visiting the city with an "Ozark Hillbilly Medallion" and a certificate proclaiming the honoree a "hillbilly of the Ozarks". On June 7, 1952, PresidentHarry S. Trumanreceived the medallion after a breakfast speech at the Shrine Mosque for the35th DivisionAssociation.Other recipients includedUS ArmygeneralsOmar BradleyandMatthew Ridgway,J. C. Penney,Johnny Olson,andRalph Story.

A customized pickup truck called "Hillbilly Heaven", on display inWheelersburg, Ohio

Hillbilly Daysis an annual festival held in mid-April inPikeville, Kentuckycelebrating the best of Appalachian culture. The event began by local Shriners as a fundraiser to support the Shriners Children's Hospital. It has grown since its beginning in 1976 and now is the second largest festival held in the state of Kentucky. Artists and craftspeople showcase their talents and sell their works on display. Nationally renowned musicians as well as the best of the regional mountain musicians share six different stages located throughout the downtown area of Pikeville. Aspiring hillbillies from across the nation compete to come up with the wildest Hillbilly outfit. The event has earned its name as the Mardi Gras of the Mountains. Fans of "mountain music" come from around the United States to hear this annual concentrated gathering of talent.

The term "Hillbilly" has been used with pride by a number of people within the region as well as famous persons, such as singerDolly Parton,chefSean Brock,and actressMinnie Pearl.Positive self-identification with the term generally includes identification with a set of "hillbilly values" including love and respect for nature, strong work ethic, generosity toward neighbors and those in need, family ties, self-reliance, resiliency, and a simple lifestyle.

However, the term has also been used repeatedly by outsiders to systematically denigrate Appalachian natives and other rural people. To many native Appalachians, an outsider calling them "hillbilly" is highly offensive and the term is one of the oldest epithets in use in the United States.

See also

• Appalachian stereotypes
• Country (identity)
• Cracker (term)
• Hillbilly armor
• List of ethnic slurs
• Mountain white
• Okie
• Peckerwood
• Redneck
• Trailer trash
• White trash
• Yokel

References

African Banjo Echoes in Appalachia: A Study of Folk Tradition (1995), by Cecelia Conway