Wikipedia

Jurchen people

Jurchen(Manchu:ᠵᡠᡧᡝᠨJušen,IPA:[dʒuʃən];Chinese:Nữ chân,Nǚzhēn[nỳ.ʈʂə́n]) is a term used to collectively describe a number ofEast AsianTungusic-speakingpeople.[a]They lived in northeastern China, also known asManchuria,before the 18th century. The Jurchens were renamedManchusin 1635 byHong Taiji.[6]Different Jurchen groups lived as hunter-gatherers, pastoralist semi-nomads, or sedentary agriculturists. Generally lacking a central authority, and having little communication with each other, many Jurchen groups fell under the influence of neighbouring dynasties, their chiefs paying tribute and holding nominal posts as effectively hereditary commanders of border guards.[7]

Jurchen people
Chinese name
ChineseNữ chân
Traditional ChineseNữ chân/Nữ chân
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinNǚzhēn
Wade–GilesNü3-chên1
South Korean name
Hangul여진
Transcriptions
Revised RomanizationYeojin
North Korean name
Chosŏn'gŭl녀진
Transcriptions
McCune–ReischauerNyŏjin
Russian name
RussianЧжурчжэни
RomanizationChzhurchzheni
Khitanname
Khitandʒuuldʒi( nữ trực )[1]
Mongolianname
MongolianЗүрчид, Зөрчид, Жүрчид[citation needed]
Zürchid,Zörchid,Jürchid[2]
Middle Chinese name
Middle Chinese/ɳɨʌXt͡ɕiɪn/

Hanofficials of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) classified them into three groups, reflecting relative proximity to the Ming:

  1. Jianzhou(Chinese: Kiến châu ) Jurchens, some of whom were mixed with Chinese populations,[citation needed]lived in the proximity of theMudan river,theChangbai mountains,andLiaodong.They were noted as able to sew clothes similar to the Chinese, and lived by hunting and fishing, sedentary agriculture, and trading in pearls and ginseng.
  2. Haixi(Chinese: Hải tây ) Jurchens, named after the Haixi orSonghua river,included several populous and independent tribes, largely divided between semi-nomadic pastoralists in the west and sedentary agriculturalists in the east. They were the Jurchens most strongly influenced by the Mongols.
  3. Yeren(Chinese: Dã nhân, lit. 'Wild People,' or, 'savage,' 'barbarian'), a term sometimes used by Chinese and Korean commentators to refer to all Jurchens. It more specifically referred to the inhabitants of the sparsely populated north of Manchuria beyond the Liao and Songhua river valleys, supporting themselves by hunting, fishing, pig farming, and some migratory agriculture.[7]

Many "Yeren Jurchens", like theNivkh(speaking alanguage isolate),Negidai,Nanai,Oroqenand manyEvenks,are today considered distinct ethnic groups.

The Jurchens are chiefly known for producing theJin(1115–1234) andQing(1644–1912)conquest dynastieson the Chinese territory. The latter dynasty, originally calling itself theLater Jin,was founded by a Jianzhou commander,Nurhaci(r. 1616–26), who unified most Jurchen tribes, incorporated their entire population into hereditary military regiments known as theEight Banners,and patronized the creation of an alphabet for their language based on the Mongolian script. The termManchu,already in official use by the Later Jin at that time,[8]was in 1635 decreed to be the sole acceptable name for that people.

Name

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A 1682 Italian map showing the "Kingdom of the Niuche" (i.e., Nǚzhēn) or the "Kin (Jin) Tartars", who "have occupied and are at present ruling China", north ofLiaodongandKorea

The name Jurchen is derived from a long line of other variations of the same name.

The initialKhitanform of the name was said to beLüzhen.The variantNrjo-tsyin(nowChinese:Nữ chânNüzhen,whence EnglishNurchen) appeared in the 10th century under theLiao dynasty.[9]The Jurchens were also interchangeably known as theNrjo-drik(nowChinese:Nữ trựcNüzhi). This is traditionally explained as an effect of theChinese naming taboo,with the characterChânbeing removed after the 1031 enthronement of Zhigu,Emperor Xingzong of Liao,because it appeared in thesinifiedform of his personal name.[9]Aisin-Gioro Ulhicun,however, argues that this was a laterfolk etymologyand the original reason was uncertainty among dialects regarding the name's final-n(Nussin, Naisin).[10]

The formNiuchewas introduced to the West byMartino Martiniin his 1654 workDe bello tartarico historia,and it soon appeared, e.g., on the 1660 world map byNicolas Sanson.

Jurchen(Jyrkin) is ananglicizationofJurčen,[2][11]an attemptedreconstructionof this unattested original form of the native name,[12]which has beentranscribedintoMiddle ChineseasTrjuwk-li-tsyin(TrúcLíChân)[b]and intoKhitan small scriptasJulisen(sulaisin).[10]The ethnonymsSushen(Old Chinese:*/siwk-[d]i[n]-s/)andJizhen(Tắc chân,Old Chinese: */tsək-ti[n]/)[13]recorded in geographical works like theClassic of Mountains and Seasand theBook of Weiare possibly cognates.[14]It was the source ofFra Mauro'sZorça[11]andMarco Polo'sCiorcia,[15]reflecting thePersianform of their name.[11]Vajdaconsiders that the Jurchens' name probably derives from the Tungusic words for "reindeerpeople "and is cognate with the names of theOrochs(urakka, uroot, urhot,) ofKhabarovskProvinceand theOroksofSakhalin.[16]( "Horse Tungus" and "Reindeer Tungus" are still the primary divisions among the Tungusic cultures.)[17]

Janhunenargues that these records already reflect theClassical Mongolianplural form of the name, recorded in theSecret HistoryasJ̌ürčät(Jyrkät),[12]and further reconstructed as *Jörcid,[15]Themodern Mongolianform isЗүрчид(Zürčid, Suurseita)) whose medial-r-does not appear in the laterJurchenJucen[15]orJušen(Jussin)(Jurchen:)[18][c]orManchuJushen(Jussin).[15]In Manchu, this word was more often used to describe theserfs[18]—though notslaves[19]—of the free Manchu people,[18]who were themselves mostly the former Jurchens. To describe the historical people who founded the Jin dynasty, they reborrowed the Mongolian name asJurcit(Jyrkät).[15][9]

Appearance

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See also:Fashion in the Jurchen Jin dynastyandManchu clothing

According toWilliam of Rubruck,the Jurchens were "swarthy like Spaniards."[20]

Sin Chung-il, a Korean emissary who in 1595 had visited the Jurchen living north-west of theYalu River,notes that during his visit to Fe Ala all those who servedNurhaciwere uniform in their dress and hairstyle. They all shaved a portion of their scalp and kept the remaining hair in along plaited braid.All men wore leather boots, breeches, and tunics.[21]

History

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See also:Timeline of the Jurchens

Origin

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Siberianscapturing areindeer

Mohe origin

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When the Jurchens first entered Chinese records in 748, they inhabited the forests and river valleys of the land which is now divided betweenChina'sHeilongjiangProvinceandRussia'sPrimorsky Krai province.In earlier records, this area was known as the home of theSushen(c. 1100BC), theYilou(around AD 200), theWuji(c. 500), and theMohe(c. 700).[22]Scholarship since the Qing period traces the origin of the Jurchens to the "Wanyen tribe of the Mohos" around Mt Xiaobai, or to the Heishui orBlackwater Mohe,[23]and some sources stress the continuity between these earlier peoples with the Jurchen[24]but this remains conjectural.[25]

The tentative ancestors of the Jurchens, theTungusicMohe tribes, were people of the multi-ethnic kingdom ofBalhae.The Mohe enjoyed eating pork, practiced pig farming extensively, and were mainly sedentary. They used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybean, wheat,millet,and rice in addition to hunting.[26]Like allTungus people,the Mohe practiced slavery. Horses were rare in the region they inhabited until the 10th century under the domination of theKhitans.The Mohe rode reindeer.[27]

Wanyan origin

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There is no dated evidence of the Jurchens before the time ofWugunai(1021-74), when the Jurchens began to coalesce into a nation-like federation. According to tradition passed down via oral transmission, Wugunai was the 6th generation descendant ofHanpu,the founder of the Wanyan clan, who therefore must have lived around the year 900.[28]Hanpu originally came from theHeishui Mohetribe of Balhae. According to theHistory of Jin,when he came to the Wanyan tribe, it was for the repayment of a murder and a form of compensation. He had two brothers, one who stayed inGoryeoand the other inBalhaewhen he left. By the time he arrived and settled among the Wanyan, he was already 60 years old and accepted as a "wise man". He succeeded in settling a dispute between two families without resorting to violence, and as a reward, was betrothed to a worthy unmarried maiden also 60 years old. The marriage was blessed with the gift of a dark ox, which was revered in Jurchen culture, and from this union came one daughter and three sons. With this, Hanpu became the chief of the Wanyan and his descendants became formal members of the Wanyan clan.[29][30][31]

Because Hanpu arrived from Goryeo, some South Korean scholars have claimed that Hanpu hailed from Goryeo. According to Alexander Kim, this cannot be easily identified as him being Korean because many Balhae people lived in Goryeo at that time. Later whenAgudaappealed to the Balhae people in theLiao dynastyfor support by emphasizing their common origin, he only mentioned those who descended from the "seven Wuji tribes", which the Goguryeo people were not a part of. It seems by that point, the Jurchens saw only theMohetribes as a related people.[29]Some western scholars consider the origin of Hanpu to be legendary in nature. Herbert Franke described the narrative provided in theHistory of Jinas an "ancestral legend" with a historical basis in that the Wanyan clan had absorbed immigrants from Goryeo and Balhae during the 10th century.[30]Frederick W. Motedescribed it as a "tribal legend" that may have born the tribe's memories. The two brothers remaining in Goryeo and Balhae may represent ancestral ties to those two peoples while Hanpu's marriage may represent the tribe's transformation from a matrilineal to patrilineal society.[31]

Qing origin

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TheQing dynastyemperor of the Aisin Gioro clan,Hongtaijiclaimed that their progenitor,Bukūri Yongšon[32]( bố khố lí ung thuận ), was conceived from a virgin birth. According to the legend, three heavenly maidens, namely Enggulen ( ân cổ luân ), Jenggulen ( chính cổ luân ) and Fekulen ( phật khố luân ), were bathing at a lake called Bulhūri Omo near theChangbai Mountains.A magpie dropped a piece of red fruit near Fekulen, who ate it. She then became pregnant with Bukūri Yongšon. However, another older version of the story by the Hurha (Hurka) tribe member Muksike recorded in 1635 contradicts Hongtaiji's version on location, claiming that it was inHeilongjiangprovince close to theAmur riverwhere Bulhuri lake was located where the "heavenly maidens" took their bath. This was recorded in theJiu Manzhou Dangand is much shorter and simpler in addition to being older. This is believed to be the original version and Hongtaiji changed it to the Changbai mountains. It shows that the Aisin Gioro clan originated in the Amur area and the Heje (Hezhen) and other Amur valley Jurchen tribes had an oral version of the same tale. It also fits with Jurchen history since some ancestors of the Manchus originated north before the 14th-15th centuries in the Amur and only later moved south.[33]

Liao vassals

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By the 11th century, the Jurchens had become vassals of theKhitanrulers of theLiao dynasty.The Jurchens in theYalu Riverregion had been tributaries ofGoryeosince the reign ofWang Geon,who called upon them during the wars of theLater Three Kingdomsperiod, but the Jurchens opportunistically switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times. They offered tribute to both courts out of political necessity and the desire for material benefits.[34]

In 1019, Jurchen piratesraided Japanfor slaves. The Jurchen pirates slaughtered Japanese men while seizing Japanese women as prisoners. Fujiwara Notada, the Japanese governor was killed.[35]In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese owned livestock were killed for food.[36][37]Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the eight ships.[38][39][40][41]The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report was copied down.[42]

One of the causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was thecustomof raping married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from the Jurchens.[43]The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by Khitan was itself not a problem, since the practice of guest prostitution - giving female companions, food and shelter to guests - was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao.[44]Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan.[45]There is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their beautiful wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only a husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens, the virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later.[46]The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes.[47]Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix.[48]

Goryeo-Jurchen war

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The Jurchens in theYalu Riverregion were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign ofTaejo of Goryeo(r. 918-943), who called upon them during the wars of theLater Three Kingdomsperiod. Taejo relied heavily on a large Jurchen cavalry force to defeatLater Baekje.The Jurchens switched allegiances between Liao and Goryeo multiple times depending on which they deemed the most appropriate. The Liao and Goryeo competed to gain the allegiance of Jurchen settlers who effectively controlled much of the border area beyond Goryeo and Liao fortifications.[49]These Jurchens offered tribute but expected to be rewarded richly by the Goryeo court in return. However the Jurchens who offered tribute were often the same ones who raided Goryeo's borders. In one instance, the Goryeo court discovered that a Jurchen leader who had brought tribute had been behind the recent raids on their territory. The frontier was largely outside of direct control and lavish gifts were doled out as a means of controlling the Jurchens. Sometimes Jurchens submitted to Goryeo and were given citizenship.[50]Goryeo inhabitants were forbidden from trading with Jurchens.[51]

The tributary relations between Jurchens and Goryeo began to change under the reign of Jurchen leaderWuyashu(r. 1103–1113) of theWanyanclan. The Wanyan clan was intimately aware of the Jurchens who had submitted to Goryeo and used their power to break the clans' allegiance to Goryeo, unifying the Jurchens. The resulting conflict between the two powers led to Goryeo's withdrawal from Jurchen territory and acknowledgment of Jurchen control over the contested region.[52][53][54]

As the geopolitical situation shifted, Goryeo unleashed a series of military campaigns in the early 12th century to regain control of its borderlands. Goryeo had already been in conflict with the Jurchens before. In 1080,Munjong of Goryeoled a force of 30,000 to conquer ten villages. However by the rise of the Wanyan clan, the quality of Goryeo's army had degraded and it mostly consisted of infantry. There were several clashes with the Jurchens, usually resulting in Jurchen victory with their mounted cavalrymen. In 1104, the Wanyan Jurchens reachedChongjuwhile pursuing tribes resisting them. Goryeo sent Lim Gan to confront the Jurchens, but his untrained army was defeated, and the Jurchens took Chongju castle. Lim Gan was dismissed from office and reinstated, dying as a civil servant in 1112. The war effort was taken up byYun Kwan,but the situation was unfavorable and he returned after making peace.[55][56]

Yun Kwan believed that the loss was due to their inferior cavalry and proposed to the king that an elite force known as theByeolmuban( biệt võ ban; "Special Warfare Army" ) be created. it existed apart from the main army and was made up of cavalry, infantry, and aHangmagun( "Subdue Demon Corps" ). In December 1107, Yun Kwan and O Yŏnch’on set out with 170,000 soldiers to conquer the Jurchens. The army won against the Jurchens and built Nine Fortresses over a wide area on the frontier encompassing Jurchen tribal lands, and erected a monument to mark the boundary. However due to unceasing Jurchen attacks, diplomatic appeals, and court intrigue, the Nine Fortresses were handed back to the Jurchens. In 1108, Yun Kwan was removed from office and the Nine Fortresses were turned over to the Wanyan clan.[57][58][59]It is plausible that the Jurchens and Goryeo had some sort of implicit understanding where the Jurchens would cease their attacks while Goryeo took advantage of the conflict between the Jurchens and Khitans to gain territory. According to Breuker, Goryeo never really had control of the region occupied by the Nine Fortresses in the first place and maintaining hegemony would have meant a prolonged conflict with militarily superior Jurchen troops that would prove very costly. The Nine Fortresses were exchanged for Poju (Uiju), a region the Jurchens later contested when Goryeo hesitated to recognize them as their suzerain.[60]

Later, Wuyashu's younger brotherAgudafounded theJin dynasty (1115–1234).When the Jin was founded, the Jurchens called Goryeo their "parent country" or "father and mother" country. This was because it had traditionally been part of their system of tributary relations, its rhetoric, advanced culture, as well as the idea that it was "bastard offspring of Koryŏ".[61][62]The Jin also believed that they shared a common ancestry with theBalhaepeople in theLiao dynasty.[29]The Jin went on to conquer the Liao dynasty in 1125 and capture the Song capital ofKaifengin 1127 (Jingkang incident). The Jin also put pressure on Goryeo and demanded that Goryeo become their subject. While many in Goryeo were against this, Yi Cha-gyöm was in power at the time and judged peaceful relations with the Jin to be beneficial to his own political power. He accepted the Jin demands and in 1126, the king of Goryeo declared himself a Jin vassal (tributary).[63][64][65]However the Goryeo king retained his position as "Son of Heaven" within Goryeo. By incorporating Jurchen history into that of Goryeo and emphasizing the Jin emperors as bastard offspring of Goryeo, and placing the Jin within the template of a "northern dynasty", the imposition of Jin suzerainty became more acceptable.[66]

Jin dynasty

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Main articles:Jin dynasty (1115–1234)andJin–Song Wars
China inc. 1141.

Wanyan Aguda,chief of theWanyantribe, unified the various Jurchen tribes in 1115 and declared himself emperor. In 1120 he seizedShangjing,also known as Linhuang Prefecture (Lâm hoàng phủ), the northern capital of the Liao dynasty.[67]During theJin–Song Wars,the Jurchens invaded theNorthern Song dynastyand overran most of northern China. The Jurchens initially created the puppet regimes ofDa QiandDa Chubut later adopted a dynastic name and became known as "Jin"Kim, which means" gold ", not to be confused with the earlier Jin tấn dynasties named after the region aroundShanxiandHenanprovinces. The name of the Jurchen dynasty in Chinese — meaning "gold"—is derived from the" Gold River "(Jurchen:antʃu-un;Manchu:Aisin) in their ancestral homeland. The Jurchens who settled into urban communities eventually intermarried with other ethnicities in China. The Jin rulers themselves came to followConfuciannorms. The Jin dynasty captured the Northern Song dynasty's capital,Bianjing,in 1127. Their armies pushed the Song all the way south to theYangtze Riverand eventually settled on a border with theSouthern Song dynastyalong theHuai River.

Poor Jurchen families in the southern Routes (Daming and Shandong) Battalion and Company households tried to live the lifestyle of wealthy Jurchen families and avoid doing farming work by selling their own Jurchen daughters into slavery and renting their land to Han tenants. The Wealthy Jurchens feasted and drank and wore damask and silk. TheHistory of Jin(Jinshi) says thatEmperor Shizong of Jintook note and attempted to halt these things in 1181.[68]

After 1189, the Jin dynasty became increasingly involved in conflicts with theMongols.By 1215, after losing much territory to the Mongols, the Jurchens moved their capital south fromZhongdutoKaifeng.The Jin emperorWanyan Yongji's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leaderGenghis Khanin exchange for relieving theMongol siege upon Zhongdu.[69]Aftera siegelasting about a year, Kaifeng fell to the Mongols in 1233.Emperor Aizongfled to Caizhou for shelter, but Caizhou alsofell to the Mongolsin 1234, marking the end of the Jin dynasty.

Ming dynasty

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A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink and color painting on silk.
A late Ming era woodblock print of a Jurchen warrior.
Main article:Manchuria under Ming rule

Chinese chroniclers of theMing dynastydistinguished three different groups of Jurchens: theWild Jurchens(Dã nhân nữ chân;yěrén Nǚzhēn) of what becameOuter Manchuria,theHaixi Jurchens(Hải tây nữ chân) of modernHeilongjiang Provinceand theJianzhou Jurchensof modernJilin Province.They led a pastoral-agrarian lifestyle, hunting, fishing, and engaging in limited agriculture. In 1388, theHongwu Emperordispatched a mission to establish contact with the Odoli, Huligai and T'owen tribes.

The issue of controlling the Jurchens was a point of contention between Joseon Korea and the early Ming.[70]

TheYongle Emperor(r. 1402–1424) found allies among the various Jurchen tribes against the Mongols. He bestowed titles and surnames to various Jurchen chiefs and expected them to send periodic tribute. One of the Yongle Emperor's consorts was a Jurchen princess, which resulted in some of the eunuchs serving him being of Jurchen origin.[71]

Chinesecommanderieswere established over tribal military units under their own hereditary tribal leaders. In the Yongle period, 178 commanderies were set up in Manchuria. Later on, horse markets were established in the northern border towns ofLiaodong.Increased contact with the Chinese gave Jurchens the more complex and sophisticated organizational structures.[citation needed]

TheKoreansdealt with the Jurchen military through appeals to material benefits and launching punitive expeditions. To appease them theJoseoncourt handed out titles and degrees, trading with them, and sought to acculturate them by having Korean women marry Jurchens and integrating them into Korean culture. These measures were unsuccessful and fighting continued between the Jurchen and the Koreans.[72][73]This relationship between the Jurchens and Koreans was ended by the Ming which envisioned the Jurchens as a form of protective border to the north.[74]In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to theYongle Emperor.Soon after,Mentemu,chieftain of Odoli clan of theJianzhou Jurchens,defected from paying tribute to Korea, becoming a tributary to China instead.Yi Seong-gye,the first ruler of Joseon, asked the Ming dynasty to send Mentemu back but was refused.[75]The Yongle Emperor was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead.[76][77]The Koreans tried to persuade Mentemu to reject the Ming dynasty's overtures but were unsuccessful.[78][79][80][81]The Jurchen tribes presented tribute to the Ming dynasty in succession.[82]They were divided in 384 guards by the Ming dynasty[74]and the Jurchen became vassals to the Ming emperors.[83]The name given to the Jurchen land by the Ming dynasty wasNurgan.Later, a Korean army led byYi-IlandYi Sun-sinwould expel them from Korea.[citation needed]

In 1409, the Ming government created the Nurgan Command Post (Nô nhi càn đô tư) at Telin (present-dayTyr, Russia,[84]about 100 km upstream fromNikolayevsk-on-Amurin theRussian Far East) in the vicinity of Heilongjiang. The Jurchens came under the nominal administration of the Nurgan Command Post which lasted only 25 years and was abolished in 1434. Leaders of the Haixi and Jianzhou tribes did, however, accept the Ming titles.[citation needed]

From 1411 to 1433, the Ming eunuchYishiha(who himself was aHaixi Jurchen[85]) led ten large missions to win over the allegiance of the Jurchen tribes along theSonghua RiverandAmur River.His fleet sailed down the Songhua into the Amur, and set up the Nurgan Command at Telin near the mouth of the Amur River. These missions are not well recorded in the Ming histories, but there exist two stone steles erected by Yishiha at the site of the Yongning Temple, a Guanyin temple commissioned by him at Telin.[86]The inscriptions on the steles are in four languages: Chinese, Jurchen, Mongol, and Tibetan. There is probably quite a lot of propaganda in the inscriptions, but they give a detailed record of the Ming court's efforts to assert suzerainty over the Jurchen. When Yishiha visited Nurgan for the 3rd time in 1413, he built a temple called Yongning Temple at Telin and erected theYongning Temple Stelein front of it. Yishiha paid his 10th visit to Nurgan in 1432, during which he rebuilt the Yongning Temple and re-erected a stele in front of it. The stele bore the heading "Record of Re-building Yongning Temple". The setting up of the Nurgan Command Post and the repeated declarations to offer blessings to this region by Yishiha and others were all recorded in this and the first steles.[citation needed]

In the ninth year of the MingXuande emperortheJurchensinManchuria under Ming rulesuffered from famine forcing them to sell their daughters into slavery and moving to Liaodong to beg for help and relief from the Ming dynasty government.[87][88]

Establishment of the Manchu

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Ethnic map prior toJurchen unification
Main article:Ethnic identity in the Eight Banners

Over a period of 30 years from 1586,Nurhaci,a chieftain of theJianzhou Jurchens,united the Jurchen tribes. In 1635, his son and successor,Hong Taiji,renamed his people theManchusas a clear break from their past as Chinese vassals.[89][90][91]During the Ming dynasty, the Koreans ofJoseonreferred to the Jurchen-inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above the rivers Yalu and Tumen as part of the "superior country" (sangguk) which they called Ming China.[92]The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, when composing theHistory of Mingto hide their former subservient relationship. TheVeritable Records of Mingwere not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in the History of Ming because of this.[93]TheYongzheng Emperorattempted to rewrite the historical record and claim that the Aisin Gioro were never subjects of past dynasties and empires trying to castNurhaci's acceptance of Ming titles like Dragon Tiger General (longhu jiangjun long hổ tương quân ) by claiming he accepted to "please Heaven".[94]

During the Qing dynasty, the two original editions of the books of the "Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu"and the"Manzhou Shilu Tu"(Taizu Shilu Tu) were kept in the palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty.[95][96]

Ourgurun(tribe, state) originally had the names Manju, Hada, Ula, Yehe, and Hoifa. Formerly ignorant persons have frequently called [us]jušen.The termjušenrefers to the Coo Mergen of Sibe barbarians and has nothing to do with ourgurun.Ourgurunestablishes the name Manju. Its rule will be long and transmitted over many generations. Henceforth persons should call ourgurunits original name, Manju, and not use the previous demeaning name.

— Hong Taiji

Culture

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Qilang people( kỳ lăng ).Huang Qing Zhigong Tu,1769
Bixifrom the grave of a 12th-century Jurchen leader in today'sUssuriysk

Jurchen culture shared many similarities with the hunter-gatherer lifestyle of Siberian-Manchurian tundra and coastal peoples. Like theKhitan peopleandMongols,they took pride in feats of strength, horsemanship, archery, and hunting. Both Mongols and Jurchens used the titleKhanfor the leaders of a political entity, whether "emperor" or "chief". A particularly powerful chief was calledbeile( "prince, nobleman" ), corresponding with the MongolianbekiandTurkicbaigorbey.Also like the Mongols and the Turks, the Jurchens did not observeprimogeniture.According to tradition, any capable son or nephew could be chosen to become leader.

Unlike the Mongols,[97][98]the Jurchens were a sedentary[16][99]and agrarian society. They farmed grain and millet as their primary cereal crops, grew flax and raised oxen, pigs, sheep, and horses.[100]"At the most", the Jurchen could only be described as "semi-nomadic" while the majority of them were sedentary.[34]

Jurchen similarities and differences with the Mongols were emphasized to various degrees byNurhaciout of political expediency.[101]Nurhaci once said to the Mongols that "the languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus (Jušen) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same. "Later, Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based on any real shared culture, but rather on pragmatic reasons of" mutual opportunism ". He said to the Mongols," You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages ".[102]

During theMing dynasty,the Jurchens lived in sub-clans (mukunorhala mukun) of ancient clans (hala). Not all clan members were blood related, and division and integration of different clans was common. Jurchen households (boo) lived as families (booigon) consisting of five to seven blood-related family members and a number of slaves. Households formed squads (tatan) to engage in tasks related to hunting and food gathering and formed companies (niru) for larger activities, such as war.[citation needed]

Haixi, Jianzhou, Yeren

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TheHaixi Jurchenswere "semi-agricultural, theJianzhou Jurchensand Maolian (Mao liên) Jurchens were sedentary, while hunting and fishing was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens".[103]Hunting, horseback archery, horsemanship, livestock raising, and sedentary agriculture were all practiced by Jianzhou Jurchens.[104]The Jurchen way of life (economy) was described as agricultural. They farmed crops andraised animals.[105]Jurchens practiced slash-and-burn agriculture in the areas north ofShenyang.[106]

"Kiến châu mao liên tắc bột hải đại thị di nghiệt, nhạc trụ chủng, thiện tập phưởng, ẩm thực phục dụng, giai như hoa nhân, tự trường bạch sơn dĩ nam, khả phụ nhi trị dã.
The (people of) Jianzhou and Mao Lian are the descendants of the Ta family of Balhae. They love to be sedentary and sow, and they are skilled in spinning and weaving. As for food, clothing and utensils, they are the same as (those used by) the Chinese. (Those living) south of Changbai Mountain are apt to be soothed and governed. "

— Cư ngụy hoán 《 hoàng minh cửu biên khảo 》 quyển nhị 《 liêu đông trấn biên di khảo 》[107]Translation fromSino-J̌ürčed relations during the Yung-Lo period, 1403–1424by Henry Serruys.[108]

Queue

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In 1126, the Jurchens initially ordered maleHan Chinesewithin their conquered territories to adopt the Jurchen hairstyle by shaving the front of their heads and adopting Jurchen dress, but the order was later lifted.[109]Jurchens were impersonated by Han rebels who wore their hair in the Jurchenqueueto strike fear within their population.[110]During theQing dynasty,the Manchus, who descended from the Jurchens, similarly made Han Chinese men shave the front of their head and wear the rest of their hair in aqueue,orsoncoho(ᠰᠣᠨᠴᠣᡥᠣ) (Biện tử;biànzi), the traditional Manchu hairstyle.[citation needed]

Dogs

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Although theirMoheancestors did not revere dogs, the Jurchens began to revere dogs around the time of the Ming dynasty and passed this tradition on to the Manchus. It was prohibited in Jurchen culture to use dog skin, and forbidden for Jurchens to harm, kill, or eat dogs. The Jurchens believed that the "utmost evil" was the usage of dog skin by Koreans.[111]

Sex and marriage

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Pre-marital sex was probably accepted in lower class Jurchen society since the practice of guest prostitution - providing visitors with sex - did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens also allowed marriage with in-laws, a practice considered taboo in Chinese society.[44][45][112][113]Abduction marriageswere common.[114]

Burial

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Until recently, it was uncertain what kind of burial rites existed among the Jurchens. In July 2012, Russian archaeologists discovered a Jurchen burial ground inPartizansky DistrictofPrimoryein Russia. Fifteen graves dating to the 12th or 13th century were found, consisting of the grave of a chieftain placed in the centre, with the graves of 14 servants nearby. All the graves contained pots with ashes, prompting the scientists to conclude that the Jurchens cremated the corpses of their dead. The grave of the chieftain also contained a quiver with arrows and a bent sword. The archaeologists propose that the sword was purposely bent, to signify that the owner would no longer need it in earthly life. The researchers planned to return to Primorye to establish whether this was a singular burial or a part of the larger burial ground.[115]

Agriculture

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Only the Mongols and the northern "wild" Jurchen were semi-nomadic, unlike the mainstream Jianzhou Jurchens descended from theJin dynasty,who were farmers that foraged, hunted, herded and harvested crops in the Liao and Yalu river basins. They gathered ginseng root, pine nuts, hunted for came pels in the uplands and forests, raised horses in their stables, and farmed millet and wheat in their fallow fields. They engaged in dances, wrestling and drinking strong liquor as noted during midwinter by the Korean Sin Chung-il when it was very cold. These Jurchens who lived in the northeast's harsh cold climate sometimes half sunk their houses in the ground which they constructed of brick or timber and surrounded their fortified villages with stone foundations on which they built wattle and mud walls to defend against attack. Village clusters were ruled by beile, hereditary leaders. They fought each other and dispensed weapons, wives, slaves and lands to their followers in them. This was how the Jurchens who founded the Qing lived and how their ancestors lived before the Jin. Alongside Mongols and Jurchen clans there were migrants from Liaodong provinces of Ming China and Korea living among these Jurchens in a cosmopolitan manner. Nurhaci, who was hosting Sin Chung-il, was uniting all of them into his own army, having them adopt the Jurchen hairstyle of a long queue and a shaved forecrown and wearing leather tunics. His armies had black, blue, red, white and yellow flags. These became the Eight Banners, initially capped to 4 then growing to 8 with three different types of ethnic banners as Han, Mongol and Jurchen were recruited into Nurhaci's forces. Jurchens like Nurhaci spoke both their native Tungusic language and Chinese, adopting theMongolian scriptfor their own language, unlike the Jin Jurchen's use of theKhitan large script.They adoptedConfucian valuesand practicedshamanist traditions.[116]Most Jurchens raised pigs and stock animals and were farmers.[68]

The Qing stationed the "New Manchu" Warka foragers inNinggutaand attempted to turn them into normal agricultural farmers but then the Warka just reverted to hunter gathering and requested money to buy cattle for beef broth. The Qing wanted the Warka to become soldier-farmers and imposed this on them, but the Warka simply left their garrison at Ningguta and went back to theSungarito their homes to herd, fish and hunt. The Qing accused them of desertion.[117]

Religion

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Jurchens practicedshamanic ritualsand believed in a supreme sky goddess (abka hehe,literally sky woman). The Jurchens of the Jin dynasty practicedBuddhism,which became the prevalent religion of the Jurchens, andDaoism.[118]The Jurchen word for "sorceress" wasshanman.[119]UnderConfucianinfluence during theQing dynastythe gender of the female sky deity was switched to a male sky father, Abka Enduri (abka-i enduri,abka-i han).[120]

Language

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The earlyJurchen scriptwas invented in 1120 byWanyan Xiyin,acting on the orders ofWanyan Aguda.It was based on theKhitan scriptthat was inspired in turn byChinese characters.The written Jurchen language died out soon after the fall of the Jin dynasty. The Translators' Bureau of the Ming tributary bureaucracy received a communication from the Jurchens in 1444 stating that nobody among them understood the Jurchen script, so all letters sent to them should be written inMongolian.[121]

Until the end of the 16th century, whenManchubecame the new literary language, the Jurchens used a combination of Mongolian and Chinese. The pioneering work on studies of the Jurchen script was done byWilhelm Grubeat the end of the 19th century.

Genetics

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Haplogroup C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483)[122][123][124]has been identified as a possible marker of the Aisin Gioro and is found in ten different ethnic minorities in northern China, but completely absent from Han Chinese.[124][125][126]

Genetic testingalso showed that the haplogroup C3b1a3a2-F8951 of the Aisin Gioro family came to southeastern Manchuria after migrating from their place of origin in the Amur river's middle reaches, originating from ancestors related toDaursin theTransbaikalarea. TheTungusicspeaking peoples mostly have C3c-M48 as their subclade of C3 which drastically differs from the C3b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup of the Aisin Gioro which originates from Mongolic speaking populations like the Daur. Jurchen (Manchus) are a Tungusic people. The Mongol Genghis Khan's haplogroup C3b1a3a1-F3796 (C3*-Star Cluster) is a fraternal "brother" branch of C3b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup of the Aisin Gioro.[122]A genetic test was conducted on 7 men who claimed Aisin Gioro descent with 3 of them showing documented genealogical information of all their ancestors up to Nurhaci. 3 of them turned out to share the C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483) haplogroup, out of them, 2 of them were the ones who provided their documented family trees. The other 4 tested were unrelated.[123]The Daur Ao clan carries the unique haplogroup subclade C2b1a3a2-F8951, the same haplogroup as Aisin Gioro and both Ao and Aisin Gioro only diverged merely a couple of centuries ago from a shared common ancestor. Other members of the Ao clan carry haplogroups like N1c-M178, C2a1b-F845, C2b1a3a1-F3796 and C2b1a2-M48. People from northeast China, the Daur Ao clan and Aisin Gioro clan are the main carriers of haplogroup C2b1a3a2-F8951. The Mongolic C2*-Star Cluster (C2b1a3a1-F3796) haplogroup is a fraternal branch to Aisin Gioro's C2b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup.[127]

In fiction

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In theAlternative Historytimeline ofHarry Turtledove's novelAgent of Byzantium,the Jurchens migrate westwards, reach Europe and become a serious threat to theByzantine Empire.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^In the past, scholars such asJean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat(apud Viktorova, 1980)[3]Fan Zuoguai and Han Feimu (apud Zarrow, 2015) proposed that the Jurchens and other Tungusic peoples descended from theDonghu people;[4]this proposal has been critiqued byethnographerLydia Viktorova andsinologist-linguistEdwin G. Pulleyblankasbeing based on merely phonetic similarity between Tungus and modern Mandarin pronunciationDōnghú;Tung-hu(IPA:[tʊ́ŋ.xǔ]) ofĐông hồ;Đông hồ.[3][5]
  2. ^The Japanese government and Franke give the modern Mandarin pronunciationZhulizhen(Sylissäin).[9]
  3. ^First attested in a late 15th-century glossary for theMingBureau of Translators.[18]

References

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Citations

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  1. ^"Liêu triều quốc hào phi “Cáp lạt khế đan ( liêu khế đan )” khảo "[The State Name of the Liao Dynasty was not “Qara Khitai (Liao Khitai )” ](PDF).Ái tân 覚 la ô lạp hi xuân nữ chân khế đan học nghiên cứu(in Chinese). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 27 September 2011.
  2. ^abHoong Teik Toh 2005,p.28
  3. ^abViktorova, Lydia Leonidovna (1980).Mongols: Origin of the People and Source of Culture(in Russian). Moscow: Nauka. p. 183.Это отчасти связано с недостаточным количеством материалов, отчасти - с допущенными ошибками. Например, фонетическое отождествление древнего народа дунху (восточные ху) с тунгусами, сделанное в начале XIX в. Абелем Ремюса лишь на принципе звукового сходства дунху - тунгус, привело к тому, что всех потомков дунху долгое время считали предками тунгусов. (rough translation: 'This is due to the insufficient amount of materials and partly due to the mistakes made. For example, the phonetic identification of the ancient people of the Donghu (Eastern Hu) with the Tungus, made at the beginning of the 19th century by Abel-Rémusat only on the principle of sound similarity between Donghu and Tungus. This led to the fact that for a long time all the descendants of the Donghu were considered the ancestors of the Tungus.')
  4. ^Zarrow, Peter (23 September 2015).Educating China: Knowledge, Society and Textbooks in a Modernizing World, 1902–1937.Cambridge University Press. p. 191.ISBN978-1-107-11547-7.Fan and Han noted that the Jurchens were of the Eastern Hu race (Donghuzu)
  5. ^*Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1983). "The Chinese and Their Neighbors in Prehistoric and Early Historic China," inThe Origins of Chinese Civilization,University of California Press, pp. 411–466. quote (p. 452): "The chance similarity in modern pronunciation of Tung Hu" Eastern Hu,' and Tungus led to the once widely held assumption that the Eastern Hu were Tungusic in language. This is a vulgar error with no real foundation. "
  6. ^Lee, Lily Xiao Hong; Wiles, Sue (13 March 2014).Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Tang Through Ming, 618-1644.M.E. Sharpe. p. 222.ISBN978-0-7656-4316-2.The Jin dynasty was established by the Jurchen people, ancestors of the Manchus who later founded the Qing dynasty.
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  9. ^abcdFranke (1994),p.216.
  10. ^abAisin Gioro & Jin 2007,p. 12.
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  12. ^abPelliot (1959),p.367.
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  31. ^abMote 1999,p. 212-213.
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  50. ^Breuker 2010,p. 221-222.
  51. ^Breuker 2010,p. 222.
  52. ^Breuker 2010,p. 223.
  53. ^Tillman, Hoyt Cleveland; West, Stephen H (1995).China Under Jurchen Rule.SUNY Press.ISBN978-0-7914-2273-1.Retrieved18 March2015.
  54. ^Twitchett, Fairbank & Franke 1994,p. 221.
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  71. ^Mitamura 1970,p. 54.
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  85. ^Shih-Shan Henry Tsai (2002).Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle.University of Washington Press. p. 158.ISBN0295981245.Google Books.
  86. ^Telin Stele(from: "Политика Минской империи в отношении чжурчженей (1402 -1413 гг.)" (The Jurchen policy of the Ming Empire), in "Китай и его соседи в древности и средневековье" (China and its neighbors in antiquity and the Middle Ages), Moscow, 1970.(in Russian)
  87. ^"Diệc thất cáp"[It's also lost] (in Chinese). Archived fromthe originalon 12 March 2020.Retrieved5 May2020.Tuyên đức cửu niên, nữ chân địa khu tai hoang, nữ chân nhân bị bách mại nhi dục nữ, tứ xử lưu vong, đào hướng liêu đông đích nữ chân nan dân, hi vọng đắc đáo quan phủ đích chẩn tế. [In the ninth year of Xuande, the Jurchen region was famine, and the Jurchens were forced to sell their sons and wives and went into exile. They fled to the Jurchen refugees in Liaodong, hoping to get relief from the government.]
  88. ^"Diệc thất cáp bát hạ đông dương".Ifeng.com.8 July 2014. Archived fromthe originalon 28 April 2015.
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Sources

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