Wikipedia

Maple

For other uses, seeMaple (disambiguation).
"Acer (plant)" redirects here. For the company, seeAcer Inc.

Acer(/ˈeɪsər/AY-sər) is agenusoftreesandshrubscommonly known asmaples.Thegenusis placed in the soapberry family,Sapindaceae,along withlycheeandhorse chestnut.[1]There are approximately 132species,most of which are native toAsia,[2]with a number also appearing inEurope,northernAfrica,andNorth America.Only one species,Acer laurinum,extends to theSouthern Hemisphere.[3]Thetype speciesof the genus is the sycamore maple,Acer pseudoplatanus,the most common maple species in Europe.[4]Maples usually have easily recognizablepalmateleaves (Acer negundois an exception) and distinctivewinged fruits.The closest relatives of the maples are thehorse chestnuts.Maple syrupis made from the sap of some maple species. It is one of the most common genera of trees in Asia. Many maple species are grown in gardens where they are valued for their autumn colour.[5]

Maple
Temporal range:Late Paleocene – Recent
Acer pseudoplatanus(sycamore maple) foliage
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Sapindaceae
Subfamily: Hippocastanoideae
Genus: Acer
L.
Species

See either
species grouped by sections
alphabetical list of species

Distribution

Evolutionary history

edit

The closest relative ofAcerisDipteronia,which only has two living species in China, but has a fossil record extending back to the middlePaleocenein North America. The oldest known fossils ofAcerare from the late Paleocene ofNortheast Asiaand northern North America, around 60 million years old. The oldest fossils ofAcerin Europe are fromSvalbard,dating to the lateEocene(Priabonian~38–34 million years ago).[6]

Morphology

edit
Acer saccharum(sugar maple)

Most maples are trees growing to a height of 10–45 m (33–148 ft). Others are shrubs less than 10 meters tall with a number of smalltrunksoriginating at ground level. Most species aredeciduous,and many are renowned for theirautumn leaf colour,but a few in southern Asia and theMediterranean regionareevergreen.Most areshade-tolerantwhen young and are often riparian, understory, or pioneer species rather than climax overstory trees. There are a few exceptions such assugar maple.[clarification needed]Many of therootsystems are typically dense and fibrous, inhibiting the growth of other vegetation underneath them. A few species, notablyAcer cappadocicum,frequently produceroot sprouts,which can develop intoclonal colonies.[4]

Acer circinatum(vine maple) leaves showing the palmate veining typical of most species

Maples are distinguished by oppositeleafarrangement. The leaves in most species arepalmateveined and lobed, with 3 to 9 (rarely to 13) veins each leading to a lobe, one of which is central or apical. A small number of species differ in having palmate compound,pinnatecompound, pinnate veined or unlobed leaves. Several species, includingAcer griseum(paperbark maple),Acer mandshuricum(Manchurian maple),Acer maximowiczianum(Nikko maple) andAcer triflorum(three-flowered maple), have trifoliate leaves. One species,Acer negundo(box-elder or Manitoba maple), has pinnately compound leaves that may be simply trifoliate or may have five, seven, or rarely nine leaflets. A few, such asAcer laevigatum(Nepal maple) andAcer carpinifolium(hornbeam maple), have pinnately veined simple leaves.

Maple species, such asAcer rubrum,may bemonoecious,dioeciousorpolygamodioecious.Theflowersare regular,pentamerous,and borne inracemes,corymbs,orumbels.They have four or fivesepals,four or fivepetalsabout 1–6 mm long (absent in some species), four to tenstamensabout 6–10 mm long, and twopistilsor a pistil with two styles. Theovaryis superior and has twocarpels,whose wings elongate the flowers, making it easy to tell which flowers are female. Maples flower in latewinteror earlyspring,in most species with or just after the appearance of the leaves, but in some before the trees leaf out.[7]

Maple flowers are green, yellow, orange or red. Though individually small, the effect of an entire tree in flower can be striking in several species. Some maples are an early spring source ofpollenandnectarforbees.

3D renderingof aμCTscan of a samara. Resolution is about 45 μm/voxel.

The distinctivefruitsare calledsamaras,"maple keys", "helicopters", "whirlybirds" or "polynoses". Theseseedsoccur in distinctive pairs each containing one seed enclosed in a "nutlet" attached to a flattened wing of fibrous, papery tissue. They are shaped to spin as they fall and to carry the seeds a considerable distance on the wind. People often call them "helicopters" due to the way that they spin as they fall. During World War II, the US Army developed a special airdrop supply carrier that could carry up to 65 pounds (29 kg) of supplies and was based on the maple seed.[8]Seed maturation is usually in a few weeks to six months after flowering, withseed dispersalshortly after maturity. However, one tree can release hundreds of thousands of seeds at a time. Depending on the species, the seeds can be small and green to orange and big with thicker seed pods. The green seeds are released in pairs, sometimes with the stems still connected. The yellow seeds are released individually and almost always without the stems. Most species requirestratificationin order togerminate,and some seeds can remain dormant in the soil for several years before germinating.[4]

The genusAcertogether with genusDipteroniaare either classified in afamilyof their own, theAceraceae,or else classified as members of the familySapindaceae.Recent classifications, including theAngiosperm Phylogeny Groupsystem, favour inclusion inSapindaceae.When put in familySapindaceae,genusAceris put insubfamilyHippocastanoideae.The genus is subdivided by its morphology into a multitude of sections and subsections.[9][10]Molecular studies incorporating DNA sequence data from both chloroplast and nuclear genomes, aiming to resolve the internal relationships and reconstruct the evolutionairy history of the group, suggest a Late Paleocene origin for the group, appearing first in the northeastern Palearctic. Rapid lineage divergence was followed by several independent dispersals to the Nearctic and Western Palearctic regions.[11][12]Fifty-four species of maples meet theInternational Union for Conservation of Naturecriteria for being under threat of extinction in their native habitat.[3]

Pests and diseases

edit
Rhytisma acerinumfungus onAcer pseudoplatanusleaf

The leaves are used as a food plant for thelarvaeof a number of the orderLepidoptera(see List of Lepidoptera that feed on maples). In high concentrations, caterpillars, like the greenstriped mapleworm (Dryocampa rubicunda), can feed on the leaves so much that they cause temporary defoliation of host maple trees.[13]Aphidsare also very common sap-feeders on maples. In horticultural applications adimethoatespray will solve this.

Infestations of theAsian long-horned beetle(Anoplophora glabripennis) have resulted in the destruction of thousands of maples and other tree species in Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Ohio in the United States and Ontario, Canada.[14][15]

Maples are affected by a number offungaldiseases. Several are susceptible to Verticillium wilt caused byVerticilliumspecies, which can cause significant local mortality.Sooty bark disease,caused byCryptostromaspecies, can kill trees that are under stress due todrought.Death of maples can rarely be caused byPhytophthoraroot rotandGanodermaroot decay. Maple leaves in late summer and autumn are commonly disfigured by "tar spot" caused byRhytismaspecies andmildewcaused byUncinulaspecies, though these diseases do not usually have an adverse effect on the trees' long-term health.[16]

Cultural significance

edit
The Canadian flag incorporates a stylized maple leaf
The maple leaf in the coat of arms ofSammatti

Amaple leafis on thecoat of arms of Canada,and is on theCanadian flag.The maple is a common symbol of strength and endurance and has been chosen as the national tree of Canada. Maple leaves are traditionally an important part ofCanadian Forcesmilitary regalia, for example, the military rank insignia for generals use maple leaf symbols. There are 10 species naturally growing in the country, with at least one in each province. Although the idea of the tree as a national symbol originally hailed from the province ofQuebec[17]where thesugar mapleis significant, today's arboreal emblem of Canada rather refers to a generic maple.[18]The design on theflagis an eleven-point stylization modeled after a sugar maple leaf (which normally bears 23 points).[19]

It is also in the name of the Canadian ice hockey team, theToronto Maple Leafs.

The first attested use of the word was in 1260 as "mapole", and it also appears a century later inGeoffrey Chaucer'sCanterbury Tales,spelled as "mapul".[20]The maple is also a symbol ofHiroshima,ubiquitous in the localmeibutsu.

The maple leaf appears in the coat of arms ofSammatti,a former municipality ofUusimaa,Finland.[21][22]

Uses

edit

Horticulture

edit
A red maple tree highlighted betweensprucetrees
Acer palmatum(Japanese maple) has over 1,000cultivars.This cultivar isA. palmatum'Sango kaku', sometimes called "coralbark maple"

Some species of maple are extensively planted asornamental treesby homeowners, businesses, and municipalities due to their fall colour, relatively fast growth, ease of transplanting, and lack of hard seeds that would pose a problem for mowing lawns. Particularly popular areNorway maple(although it is considered invasive in North America),silver maple,Japanese maple,andred maple.Thevine mapleis also occasionally used as an ornamental tree. Other maples, especially smaller or more unusual species, are popular as specimen trees.[4]

Cultivars

edit

Numerous maplecultivarsthat have been selected for particular characteristics can bepropagatedonly byasexual reproductionsuch as cuttings,tissue culture,budding orgrafting.Acer palmatum(Japanese maple) alone has over 1,000 cultivars, most selected in Japan, and many of them no longer propagated or not in cultivation in theWestern world.Some delicate cultivars are usually grown in pots and rarely reach heights of more than 50–100 cm.

Acer palmatum var. 'Kiyohime' asbonsaiduring fallabscission.This dwarf hybrid cultivar is prized for its small leaves and bright red fall colors.

Bonsai

edit
"Roter Fächerahorn"

Maples are a popular choice for the art ofbonsai.Japanese maple(Acer palmatum),trident maple(A. buergerianum),Amur maple(A. ginnala),field maple(A. campestre) andMontpellier maple(A. monspessulanum) are popular choices and respond well to techniques that encourage leaf reduction andramification,but most species can be used.[4][23]

Collections

edit
Acer griseumis widely grown for its decorative bark

Maple collections, sometimes calledaceretums,occupy space in many gardens andarboretaaround the world including the "five great W's" inEngland:Wakehurst Place Garden,Westonbirt Arboretum,Windsor Great Park,Winkworth ArboretumandWisley Garden.In theUnited States,the aceretum at theHarvard-ownedArnold ArboretuminBostonis especially notable. In the number of species and cultivars, theEsveld AceretuminBoskoop, Netherlands,is the largest in the world.[4]

Commercial uses

edit

Maples are important as sources of syrup and wood. Dried wood is often used for thesmokingof food. Charcoal from maples is an integral part of theLincoln County Processused to makeTennessee whiskey.[24]They are also cultivated asornamental plantsand have benefits fortourismandagriculture.

Timber

edit
A bench made of highly figured maple wood

Some of the larger maple species have valuabletimber,particularly Sugar maple in North America and Sycamore maple in Europe. Sugar maple wood—often known as "hard maple" —is the wood of choice forbowlingpins, bowling alley lanes,poolandsnookercue shafts,andbutcher's blocks.Maple wood is also used for the manufacture of woodenbaseball bats,though less often thanashorhickorydue to the tendency of maple bats to shatter if they do break. The maple bat was introduced toMajor League Baseball(MLB) in 1998 bySam Batfounder Sam Holman. Today it is the standard maple bat most in use by professional baseball.[25]Maple is also commonly used in archery as the core material in the limbs of arecurve bowdue to its stiffness and strength.

Maple wood is often graded based on physical and aesthetic characteristics. The most common terminology includes the grading scale from common #2; which is unselected and often used for craft woods; common #1, used for commercial and residential buildings; clear; and select grade, which is sought for fine woodworking.[26]

Some maple wood has a highly decorativewood grain,known asflame maple,quilt maple,birdseye mapleandburl wood.This condition occurs randomly in individual trees of several species and often cannot be detected until the wood has been sawn, though it is sometimes visible in the standing tree as a rippled pattern in the bark.

These select decorative wood pieces also have subcategories that further filter the aesthetic looks. Crotch wood, bees wing, cats paw, old growth and mottled are some terms used to describe the look of these decorative woods.[27]

Maples have a long history of use for furniture production in the United States.[28]TheCherokeepeople would produce a purple dye from maple bark, which they used to dye cloth.[29][30]

Tonewood

edit

Maple is considered atonewood,or a wood that carries sound waves well, and is used in numerousmusical instruments.Maple is harder and has a brighter sound thanmahogany,which is another major tonewood used in instrument manufacturing.[31]

The back, sides, and neck of mostviolins,violas,cellos,anddouble bassesare made from maple.

Electric guitarnecks are commonly made from maple, having good dimensional stability. The necks of the FenderStratocasterandTelecasterwere originally an entirely maple one piece neck, but later were also available withrosewoodfingerboards.Les Pauldesired an all maple guitar, but due to the weight of maple, only the tops ofGibson's Les Paul guitars are made from carved maple, often using quilted or flamed maple tops. Due to its weight, very fewsolid bodyguitars are made entirely from maple, but many guitars have maple necks, tops or veneers.

Maple is also often used to makebassoonsand sometimes for otherwoodwind instrumentslike maple recorders.

Manydrumsare made from maple. From the 1970s to the 1990s, maple drum kits were a vast majority of all drum kits made, but in recent years,birchhas become popular for drums once again. Some of the best drum-building companies use maple extensively throughout their mid-pro range.[4]Maple drums are favored for their bright resonant sound.[32]Certain types of drum sticks are also made from maple.

Agriculture

edit
Further information:Maple syrup

During late winter to early spring in northeasternNorth America,when the night-to-day temperatures change from freezing to thawing, maple trees may be tapped forsapto manufacturemaple syrup.[33]The sap is sent via tubing to asugar housewhere it is boiled to produce syrup or made intomaple sugarormaple taffy.It takes about 40 litres (42 US qt) of sugar maple sap to make 1 litre (1.1 US qt) of syrup.[33]While anyAcerspecies may be tapped for syrup, many do not have sufficient quantities of sugar to be commercially useful, whereassugar maples(A. saccharum) are most commonly used to produce maple syrup.[33]Québec, Canadais a major producer of maple syrup, an industry worth about 500 millionCanadian dollarsannually.[33][34]

Also, as these trees are a major source ofpollenin early spring before many other plants have flowered, maple flowers are a source of foraging forhoneybeesthat play a commercially important role in general agriculture and in natural habitats.[35]

Pulpwood

edit

Maple is used aspulpwood.The fibers have relatively thick walls that prevent collapsing upon drying. This gives good bulk and opacity inpaper.Maple also gives paper good printing properties.

Tourism

edit

Many maples have brightautumn foliage,and many countries have leaf-watching traditions. The sugar maple (Acer saccharum) is the primary contributor to fall "foliage season"in north-easternNorth America.InJapan,the custom of viewing the changing colour of maples in the autumn is calledmomijigari.NikkōandKyotoare particularly favoured destinations for this activity. In Korea, the same viewing activity is calleddanpung-noriand theSeoraksanandNaejang-sanmountains are among the best-known destinations.

edit

See also

edit
Wikimedia Commons has media related toAcer.

References

edit

Citations

edit
  1. ^Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 9, June 2008 [and more or less continuously updated since].http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/.
  2. ^Xu, Tingzhi; Chen, Yousheng; de Jong, Piet C.; Oterdoom, Herman John; Chang, Chin-Sung."Acer".Flora of China.Vol. 11.Retrieved27 May2012– via eFloras.org,Missouri Botanical Garden,St. Louis, MO &Harvard University Herbaria,Cambridge, MA.
  3. ^abGibbs, D. & Chen, Y. (2009)The Red List of MaplesArchived2019-05-28 at theWayback MachineBotanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI)ISBN978-1-905164-31-8
  4. ^abcdefgvan Gelderen, C. J. & van Gelderen, D. M. (1999).Maples for Gardens: A Color EncyclopediaISBN978-0-585-25457-9
  5. ^[1]Crowley (2020) Acer L. from the website Trees and Shrubs Online
  6. ^Areces-Berazain, Fabiola; Hinsinger, Damien D.; Strijk, Joeri S. (March 2021)."Genome-wide supermatrix analyses of maples (Acer, Sapindaceae) reveal recurring inter-continental migration, mass extinction, and rapid lineage divergence".Genomics.113(2): 681–692.doi:10.1016/j.ygeno.2021.01.014.PMID33508445.S2CID231754169.
  7. ^Huxley, A., ed. (1992).New RHS Dictionary of Gardening.MacmillanISBN0-333-47494-5.
  8. ^"Sky Hook Spirals from Plane"Popular Mechanics,December 1944, p. 75.
  9. ^"Classification of GenusAcer".12 August 2007. Archived fromthe originalon 12 August 2007.Retrieved19 November2017.
  10. ^Areces-Berazain, Fabiola; Wang, Yixi; Hinsinger, Damien D.; Strijk, Joeri S. (2020-07-13)."Plastome comparative genomics in maples resolves the infrageneric backbone relationships".PeerJ.8:e9483.doi:10.7717/peerj.9483.ISSN2167-8359.PMC7365138.PMID32742784.
  11. ^Renner, Susanne S; Grimm, Guido W; Schneeweiss, Gerald M; Stuessy, Tod F; Ricklefs, Robert E (2008-10-01)."Rooting and Dating Maples (Acer) with an Uncorrelated-Rates Molecular Clock: Implications for North American/Asian Disjunctions".Systematic Biology.57(5): 795–808.doi:10.1080/10635150802422282.ISSN1063-5157.PMID18853365.
  12. ^Areces-Berazain, Fabiola; Hinsinger, Damien D.; Strijk, Joeri S. (2021-03-01)."Genome-wide supermatrix analyses of maples (Acer, Sapindaceae) reveal recurring inter-continental migration, mass extinction, and rapid lineage divergence".Genomics.113(2): 681–692.doi:10.1016/j.ygeno.2021.01.014.ISSN0888-7543.PMID33508445.
  13. ^"Auburn University Entomology and Plant Pathology | Greenstriped Mapleworm".Auburn University Entomology and Plant Pathology.Retrieved2017-11-14.
  14. ^"Fact Sheets".Umassgreeninfo.org.Retrieved19 November2017.
  15. ^September 18, 2003 Asian Longhorned Beetle discovered in York RegionArchivedJanuary 14, 2006, at theWayback Machine
  16. ^Phillips, D. H. & Burdekin, D. A. (1992).Diseases of Forest and Ornamental Trees.Macmillan.ISBN0-333-49493-8.
  17. ^Fraser, Alistair B. (1998)."National Symbols".The Flag of Canada.Retrieved19 November2017.
  18. ^Heritage, Canadian."Official symbols of Canada - Canada.ca".Canada.pch.gc.ca.Retrieved19 November2017.
  19. ^Sandberg, L. Anders (2014).Urban Forests, Trees, and Greenspace: A Political Ecology Perspective.Routledge.ISBN9781134687633.
  20. ^"maple, n.1".Oxford University Press.Retrieved19 November2017– via Oxford English Dictionary.
  21. ^Suomen kunnallisvaakunat(in Finnish). Suomen Kunnallisliitto. 1982. p. 161.ISBN951-773-085-3.
  22. ^"Sisäasiainministeriön vahvistamat kaupunkien, kauppaloiden ja kuntien vaakunat 1949-1995 I:13 Sammatti"(in Finnish). Kansallisarkiston digitaaliarkisto.RetrievedSeptember 9,2021.
  23. ^D'Cruz, Mark."Ma-Ke Bonsai Care Guide forAcer buergerianum".Ma-Ke Bonsai. Archived fromthe originalon 2011-07-14.Retrieved2011-07-05.
  24. ^Zandona, Eric."Tennessee Whiskey Gets a Legal Definition".EZdrinking.Retrieved2014-01-11.
  25. ^Sam Holman Maple Baseball BatsArchived2010-05-16 at theWayback Machine
  26. ^"Publications"(PDF).Ahec.org.Retrieved19 November2017.
  27. ^Wood Terms and ExamplesArchived2010-03-14 at theWayback Machine
  28. ^Joseph Aronson (1965).The encyclopedia of furniture.Random House, Inc. pp. 300–.ISBN978-0-517-03735-5.Retrieved8 September2010.
  29. ^Knight, Oliver (1956–57), "History of the Cherokees, 1830–1846",Chronicles of Oklahoma,Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Historical Society, p. 164,OCLC647927893
  30. ^Foreman, Grant (1934).The Five Civilized Tribes.Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 283–284.ISBN978-0-8061-0923-7.
  31. ^"Archived copy".Archived fromthe originalon 2021-03-02.Retrieved2012-11-14.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  32. ^Geoff Nicholls; Tony Bacon (1 June 1997).The drum book.Hal Leonard Corporation. pp. 54–.ISBN978-0-87930-476-8.Retrieved19 October2010.
  33. ^abcd"Step-by-Step in the Production of Maple Syrup".Québec Maple Syrup Producers. 2021.Retrieved4 October2021.
  34. ^Marowits, Ross (20 February 2017)."Quebec increases maple syrup production amid internal revolt, foreign competition".CBC.Archivedfrom the original on 18 May 2017.Retrieved21 May2017.
  35. ^"Trees for bees and other pollinators".Arbor Day Foundation. 2021.Retrieved5 October2021.

[1]

General bibliography

edit
  1. ^Maples for gardens: a color encyclopedia.Timber Press. 1999.ISBN9780585254579.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maple&oldid=1234688004"