Wikipedia

Napalm

This article is about flammable liquids used for flame-type weaponry. For other uses, seeNapalm (disambiguation).

Napalmis anincendiarymixture of agelling agentand a volatile petrochemical (usuallygasolineordiesel fuel). The name is aportmanteauof two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents:coprecipitatedaluminiumsaltsofnaphthenic acidandpalmitic acid.[1]A team led by chemistLouis Fieseroriginally developed napalm for theUS Chemical Warfare Servicein 1942 in a secret laboratory atHarvard University.[2]Of immediate first interest was its viability as anincendiary deviceto be used infire bombingcampaigns duringWorld War II;its potential to be coherently projected into a solid stream that would carry for distance (instead of the bloomy fireball of puregasoline) resulted in widespread adoption in infantry and tank/boat mountedflamethrowersas well.

North American F-100 Super Sabredropping napalm in a training exercise

Napalm burns at temperatures[3][4]ranging from 800 to 1,200 °C (1,470 to 2,190 °F). It burns longer than gasoline, is more easily dispersed, and adheres to its targets. These traits make it both effective and controversial. It has been widely used from the air and from the ground, the largest use having been via airdropped bombs inWorld War IIin theincendiary attacks on Japanese citiesin 1945. It was used also forclose air supportroles in theFirst Indochina War,theAlgerian War,theKorean War,theSix-Day War,and theVietnam War.Napalm has also fueled most of theflamethrowers(tank-, ship-, and infantry-based) used since World War II, giving them much greater range, and was a common weapon ofurban combatby both theAxisand theAlliesin World War II.

Development

edit

The development of napalm was precipitated by the use of jellied gasoline mixtures by theAllied forcesduringWorld War II.[5]: F57 Latex,used in these early forms of incendiary devices, became scarce, sincenatural rubberwas almost impossible to obtain after theJapanese armycaptured the rubber plantations inMalaya,Indonesia,Vietnam,andThailand.

This shortage of natural rubber promptedchemistsat US companies such asDuPontandStandard Oil of New Jersey,and researchers atHarvard University,to develop factory-made alternatives:artificial rubberfor all uses, including vehicle tires, tank tracks, gaskets, hoses, medical supplies and rain clothing. A team of chemists led byLouis Fieserat Harvard University was the first to develop synthetic napalm during 1942.[6]"The production of napalm was first entrusted to Nuodex Products, and by the middle of April 1942 they had developed a brown, dry powder that was not sticky by itself, but when mixed with gasoline turned into an extremely sticky and flammable substance." One of Fieser's colleagues suggested addingphosphorusto the mix which increased the "ability to penetrate deeply [...] into themusculature,where it would continue to burn day after day. "[7]

On 4 July 1942, the first test occurred on the football field near theHarvard Business School.[7]Tests under operational conditions were carried out atJefferson Proving Groundon condemned farm buildings and subsequently atDugway Proving Groundon buildings designed and constructed to represent those to be found in German and Japanese towns.[8][9]This new mixture of chemicals was widely used by the United States in the Second World War forincendiary bombsand inflamethrowers,after its first use inPapua New Guineaon 15 December 1943.[10]

From 1965 to 1969, theDow Chemical Companymanufactured napalm for the American armed forces.[10]After news reports of napalm's deadly and disfiguring effects were published, Dow Chemical experiencedboycottsof its products, and its recruiters for new chemists,chemical engineers,etc., graduating from college were subject to campus boycotts and protests.[11][12]The management of the company decided that its "first obligation was the government".[13]Meanwhile, napalm became a symbol for theVietnam War.[14]

Military use

edit
Results of a napalm strike by theAviation navaleon suspectedViet Minhpositions during theFirst Indochina War,December 1953

Napalm was first employed in incendiary bombs and went on to be used as fuel for flamethrowers.[15]

The first recorded strategic use of napalm incendiary bombs occurred in an attack by theUS Army Air Forces(USAAF) onBerlinon 6 March 1944, using American AN-M76 incendiary bombs with PT-1 (Pyrogel) filler.[16][17]The first known tactical use by the USAAF was by the368th Fighter Group,Ninth Air Force Northeast ofCompiègne,France 27 May 1944[18]and the BritishDe Havilland Mosquito FB Mk.VIsof No. 140 Wing RAF,Second Tactical Airforceon 14 July 1944, which also employed the AN-M76 incendiary in a reprisal attack on the17th SS Panzergrenadier Division"Götz von Berlichingen"in Bonneuil-Matours. Soldiers of this Waffen SS unit had captured and then killed a BritishSASprisoner-of-war, Lieutenant Tomos Stephens, taking part inOperation Bulbasket,and seven local French resistance fighters. Although it was not known at the time of the airstrike, 31 other POWs from the same SAS unit, and an American airman who had joined up with the SAS unit, had also been executed.[19]

Further use of napalm by Allied forces occurred in the Pacific theater of operations, where, in 1944 and 1945, napalm was used as a tactical weapon against Japanese bunkers, pillboxes, tunnels, and other fortifications, especially onSaipan,Iwo Jima,thePhilippines,andOkinawa,where deeply dug-in Japanese troops refused to surrender. Napalm bombs were dropped by aviators of theUS Navy,the USAAF, theUS Marine Corps,and theRoyal Air Force[20]in support of ground troops.[citation needed]TheM69 incendiarywas specifically designed to destroy Japanese civilian houses. Those bombs were widely used against civilians, including theBombing of Tokyo.Over 40,000 tons of AN-M69s were dropped on Japanese cities during the war.[21]

When the USAAFs on theMarianas Islandsran out of conventionalthermiteincendiary bombs for their B-29 Superfortresses to drop on large Japanese cities, its top commanders, such as GeneralCurtis LeMay,used napalm bombs to continue with fire raids.[22]

In theEuropean Theater of Operations,napalm was used by American forces[23]in thesiege of La Rochellein April 1945 against German soldiers (and inadvertently French civilians) inRoyan—about two weeks before the end of the war.[24]

In its first known post-WWII use, US-supplied napalm was used in theGreek Civil Warby the Greek National Army as part of operationsKoronisandPyrsosagainst theDemocratic Army of Greece(DSE)—the military branch of theCommunist Party of Greece(KKE).[25][26]

"Zippo"riverboat of the USBrown-water navyfiring an ignited napalm mixture from a riverboat-mountedflamethrowerin Vietnam

Napalm was widely used by the US during theKorean War.[citation needed]The ground forces inNorth Koreaholding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but USAir ForceandNavyaviatorshad control of the air over nearly all of theKorean Peninsula.Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm forclose air supportof the ground troops along the border between North Korea andSouth Koreaand also for attacks in North Korea. Napalm was used most notably during the battle "Outpost Harry"in South Korea during the night of 10–11 June 1953.[citation needed]Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that on an "average good day" UN pilots used 260,000 liters (70,000 US gal; 58,000 imp gal) of napalm, with approximately 230,000 liters (60,000 US gal; 50,000 imp gal) of this thrown by US forces.[27]TheNew York Herald Tribunehailed "Napalm, the No. 1 Weapon in Korea".[28]British Prime MinisterWinston Churchillprivately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S.Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of StaffOmar Bradley,who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks".[29]

At the same time, theFrench Air Forceregularly used napalm for close air support of ground operations in theFirst Indochina War(1946–1954). At first, the canisters were simply pushed out the side doors ofJu 52planes that had been captured in Germany, later mostlyB-26bombers were used.[30]

Napalm became an intrinsic element of US military action during the Vietnam War as forces made increasing use of it for its tactical and psychological effects.[31]Reportedly about 352,000 tonnes (388,000 short tons; 346,000 long tons) of US napalm bombs were dropped in the region between 1963 and 1973, compared to 29,354 tonnes (32,357 short tons; 28,890 long tons) used over three years in the Korean War, and 15,000 tonnes (16,500 short tons; 14,700 long tons) dropped on Japan in 1945.[2]The US Air Force and US Navy used napalm with great effect against all kinds of targets, such as troops, tanks, buildings, jungles, and evenrailroad tunnels.The effect was not always purely physical as napalm had psychological effects on the enemy as well.[32]

A variant of napalm was produced inRhodesiafor a type of ordnance known asFrantanbetween 1968 and 1978 and was used extensively by theRhodesian Air Forceduring theBush War.[33]In May 1978, Herbert Ushewokunze, minister of health for theZimbabwe African National Union(ZANU), produced photographic evidence of civilian victims of Rhodesian napalm strikes, which he circulated during a tour of the US.[33]The government ofMozambiqueand theZimbabwe African People's Union(ZAPU) also issued claims at around the same time that napalm strikes against guerrilla targets had become a common feature in Rhodesian military operations both at home and abroad.[33]

TheSouth African Air Forcefrequently dropped napalm fromAtlas Impalastrike aircraft during raids on guerrilla bases inAngoladuring theSouth African Border War.[34]

Other instances of napalm's use include: France during theAlgerian War(1954–1962);[35]Portuguese Colonial War(1961–1974);Turkey(1964) dropped napalm bombs in theRepublic of Cyprus;Peruduring the1964 Matsés massacres[es]and the counterinsurgency campaign against theRevolutionary Left Movementand theNational Liberation Army(1965);[36]theSix-Day Warby Israel (1967); inNigeria(1969); inIndiaandPakistan(1965 and 1971);Egypt(1973); byTurkey(1974) theTurkish Invasion of Cyprus;byMoroccoduring theWestern Sahara War(1975–1991); byArgentina(1982); byIran(1980–88); byIraq(1980–88, 1991); byIndian Peace Keeping Force(IPKF) in 1987 againstTamils(LTTE) inSri Lanka;byAngoladuring theAngolan Civil War;andYugoslavia(1991–1996).[37]In 2018, Turkey was accused of using napalm in itswar against Kurdish militias over Afrin.[38]

Antipersonnel effects

edit
Phan Thi Kim Phuc,burned with napalm at the age of 9 during the Vietnam War

When used as a part of anincendiary weapon,napalm causes severeburns.Duringcombustion,napalmdeoxygenatesthe available air and generatescarbon monoxideandcarbon dioxide,soasphyxiation,unconsciousness, and death are also possible.[39]

Napalm is lethal even for dug-in enemy personnel, as it flows intofoxholes,tunnels, andbunkers,and drainage and irrigation ditches and other improvised troop shelters. Even people in undamaged shelters can be killed byhyperthermia,radiant heat,dehydration,asphyxiation,smoke exposure, orcarbon monoxide poisoning.[39]Crews ofarmored fighting vehiclesare also vulnerable, due to the intense heat conducted through the armor. Even in the case of a near miss, the heat can be enough to disable a vehicle.[40]

One firebomb released from a low-flying plane can damage an area of 2,100 square meters (2,500 sq yd).[39]

International law

edit

International law does not specifically prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets,[41]but use against civilian populations was banned by the UNConvention on Certain Conventional Weapons(CCW) in 1980.[42]Protocol IIIof the CCW restricts the use of allincendiary weapons,but a number of countries have not acceded to all of the protocols of the CCW. According to theStockholm International Peace Research Institute(SIPRI), countries are considered a party to the convention, which entered into force as international law in December 1983, as long as they ratify at least two of the five protocols. Approximately 25 years after the General Assembly adopted it, it was reported that the US signed it on 21 January 2009,Barack Obama's first full day in office as president.[43][44]Its ratification is subject to a reservation that says that the treaty can be ignored if it would save civilian lives.[44][45]The UN has also acknowledged that the US had ratified the CCW in March 1995, 13 years after the country became a signatory to it.[46]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^"Oxford Dictionaries – napalm: definition of napalm".Archived fromthe originalon 26 August 2013.Retrieved2 October2014.
  2. ^ab"Books in brief. Napalm: An American Biography Robert M. Neer Harvard University Press 352 pp".Nature.496(7443): 29. 2013.doi:10.1038/496029a.
  3. ^"Napalm and Agent Orange in the Vietnam War".www.thoughtco.com.ThoughtCo.
  4. ^Military Review(Volume 13 Number 6 ed.). Command and General Staff College. April 1953. p. 13.
  5. ^Basil T. Fedoroff; Oliver E. Sheffield (1 January 1974)."Flame Throwers—Liquids and Gels".Encyclopedia of explosives and related items.Vol. 6. Picatinny Arsenal. pp. F56–F58.LCCN61-61759.
  6. ^"Napalm".www.chm.bris.ac.uk.
  7. ^abLindqvist, Sven (2001).A History of Bombing.New York: The New Press. p. 105.ISBN1-56584-625-7.
  8. ^Noyes, W.A. Jr., ed. (1948).Science in World War II: Chemistry.Boston: Little, Brown and Company. pp. 392, 393.
  9. ^"An Ithaca of sorts".29 June 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 11 October 2012.Retrieved26 December2012.
  10. ^abMarine Guillaume (10 December 2016)."Napalm in US Bombing Doctrine and Practice, 1942-1975".SciencesPo.ISSN1961-9898.Archivedfrom the original on 25 March 2022.Retrieved21 July2022.
  11. ^University of Wisconsin-Madison (2017)."A Turning Point".Retrieved26 October2017.
  12. ^Worland, Gayle (8 October 2017)."50 years ago, 'Dow Day' left its mark on Madison".Wisconsin State Journal.Madison, WI: John Humenik.Retrieved26 October2017.
  13. ^"Napalm History"Archived2011-10-06 at theWayback MachineVirginia Center for Digital History
  14. ^NapalmArchived6 October 2011 at theWayback Machine.vcdh.virginia.edu. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.
  15. ^"The Harvard Candle".6 March 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 29 December 2012.Retrieved26 December2012.
  16. ^Kleber, Brooks E. and Birdsell, Dale (1966)The Chemical Warfare Service: Chemicals in Combat.Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, p.158.
  17. ^An article inThe Harvard Crimsondated 12 October 1973 here[1]states that "The U.S. military started using napalm during the middle of 1942".
  18. ^"368th FG HQ Documents".www.368thfightergroup.com.
  19. ^McCue, Paul and Baker, Max (2009)SAS Operation Bulbasket: Behind the Lines in Occupied France.Barnsley, S. Yorks: Pen and Sword Books. p. 104.ISBN1848841930.
  20. ^McKinstry, Leo (2011).Hurricane: victor of the Battle of Britain.London: John Murray.ISBN978-1-84854-341-6.OCLC659244635.
  21. ^Wellerstein, Alex (30 August 2013)."Who Made That Firebomb?".RESTRICTED DATA The Nuclear Secrecy Blog.Retrieved12 September2020.
  22. ^ De Chant, John A. (1947).Devilbirds.New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers. p. 155.
  23. ^Zinn, Howard (1997).The Zinn Reader: Writings on Disobedience and Democracy.Seven Stories Press. pp. 267–.ISBN978-1-888363-54-8.
  24. ^Howard Zinn,You Can't Be Neutral on a Moving Train.2004 Documentary
  25. ^House, Jonathan M. (28 April 2014).A Military History of the Cold War, 1944–1962.University of Oklahoma Press. p. 70.ISBN9780806146904.
  26. ^Featherstone, Kevin; Papadimitriou, Dimitris; Mamarelis, Argyris; Niarchos, Georgios (2011).The Last Ottomans: The Muslim Minority of Greece, 1940–49.Palgrave Macmillan.p. 211.ISBN978-0-230-29465-3.
  27. ^Neer, Robert (2013).Napalm: An American Biography.Harvard University Press. p. 99.
  28. ^Pembroke, Michael (2018).Korea: Where the American Century Began.Hardie Grant Books. p. 152.
  29. ^Neer, Robert M. (2013).Napalm: An American Biography.Harvard University Press. pp. 102–3.
  30. ^ Fall, Bernard B.(2018) [1961].Street Without Joy.Guilford, CT: Stackpole Books.ISBN978-0-8117-3654-1.
  31. ^Rohn, Alan (18 January 2014)."Napalm in Vietnam War".The Vietnam War.Retrieved28 October2019.
  32. ^"Liquid Fire – How Napalm Was Used in the Vietnam War".www.warhistoryonline.com.Nikola Budanovic. June 2016.Retrieved8 November2017.
  33. ^abcAnti-Apartheid Movement, (various) (1979).Fireforce Exposed: Rhodesian Security Forces and Their Role in Defending White Supremacy.London: The Anti-Apartheid Movement. pp. 39–40.ISBN978-0900065040.
  34. ^Nortje, Piet (2003).32 Battalion: The Inside Story of South Africa's Elite Fighting Unit.New York: Zebra Press. p. 158.ISBN1-868729-141.
  35. ^Benjamin Stora,"Avoir 20 ans en Kabylie", inL'Histoiren°324, October 2007, pp. 28–29(in French)
  36. ^Colby, Gerard;Dennett, Charlotte (1995).Thy Will Be Done – The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil.New York: HarperPerennial. p. 466, 491-493.ISBN9780060167646.
  37. ^Goose Green, 2 Para in Falklands War 1982.Naval-history.net. Retrieved on 11 February 2010.
  38. ^"Kurds Accuse Turks of Dropping Napalm | Voice of America – English".www.voanews.com.Archived fromthe originalon 25 September 2020.Retrieved8 August2020.
  39. ^abcNapalm ExposureateMedicine
  40. ^Seymour M. Kaye (1 January 1978)."Napalm".Encyclopedia of explosives and related items.Vol. 8. Picatinny Arsenal. pp. N2–N3.LCCN61-61759.
  41. ^Omara-Otunnu, Elizabeth (8 November 2004).Napalm Survivor Tells of Healing After Vietnam War.University of Connecticut Advance.
  42. ^"worldinbalance.net".www.worldinbalance.net.Archived fromthe originalon 4 October 2011.Retrieved6 July2011.
  43. ^Neer, Robert (2013).Napalm, An American Biography.Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp.224.ISBN978-0-674-07301-2.
  44. ^ab"Napalm, An American Biography".www.napalmbiography.com.
  45. ^Los Angeles Times (24 February 1995)."Military in no hurry to dispose of napalm".Baltimore Sun.Retrieved17 April2021.
  46. ^"UNTC".Treaties.un.org.Retrieved15 March2022.

Further reading

edit
edit
Look upnapalmin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related toNapalm.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Napalm&oldid=1244314700"