Wikipedia

Syrian opposition

This article is about Syrian opposition during the Syrian Civil War. For other historic opposition in Syria, seeSyrian opposition (disambiguation).

TheSyrian opposition(Arabic:المعارضة السوريةal-Muʻaraḍatu s-Sūrīyah,[almʊˈʕaːɾadˤɑtus.suːˈɾɪj.ja]) is the political structure represented by theSyrian National Coalitionand associated Syrian anti-Assad groups with certain territorial control as analternative Syrian government.

Syrian Opposition
المعارضة السورية(Arabic)
al-Muʻaraḍatu al-Sūrīyah
Flag of Syrian opposition
Areas under control of various opposition groups as of January 2024      Interim Government (National Army)      Salvation Government (Tahrir al-Sham)      al-Tanf (Revolutionary Commando Army)
Areas under control of various opposition groups as of January 2024
Interim Government(National Army)
Salvation Government(Tahrir al-Sham)
al-Tanf(Revolutionary Commando Army)
CapitalDamascus(claimed)
Azaz(de factobySIG)[1][2]

Idlib(de factobySSG)

Al-Tanf Base(used bySyrian Free Army)
Largest cityDamascus(claimed)
Official languagesArabic
Demonym(s)Syrian
GovernmentUnitaryprovisional government
• President of theSyrian National Coalition
Hadi al-Bahra
• Prime Minister ofinterim government
Abdurrahman Mustafa
LegislatureGeneral Assembly / General Shura Council
Establishment
• Formation
15 March 2011
CurrencyTurkish lira,[3][4]Euro,United States dollarandSyrian pound(SYP)
Time zoneUTC+3(EET)
Drives onright
Calling code+963
ISO 3166 codeSY
Internet TLD.sy
سوريا.
Preceded by
Syrian Arab Republic

The Syrian opposition has evolved since the beginning of the Syrian conflict from groups calling for the overthrow of the Assad government inSyriaand who have opposed itsBa'athist government.[5]Prior to theSyrian civil war,the term "opposition" (Arabic:المعارضة) had been used to refer to traditional political actors, for example theNational Coordination Committee for Democratic Change;that is, groups and individuals who have had a history of dissidence against the Syrian state.[6]

The first opposition structures to form in theSyrian uprisingwere local protest-organizing committees. These formed in April 2011, as protesters graduated from spontaneous protests to protests organized by meetings beforehand.[7]

TheSyrian uprising phase,from March 2011 until the start of August 2011, was characterized by a consensus for nonviolent struggle among the uprising's participants.[8]Thus the conflict could not have been yet characterized as a "civil war", until army units defected in response to government reprisals against the protest movement.[9][10]This occurred 2012, allowing the conflict to meet the definition of "civil war."[11]

Opposition groups in Syria took a new turn in late 2011, during theSyrian Civil War,as they united to form theSyrian National Council(SNC),[12]which has received significantinternational supportand recognition as apartner for dialogue.The Syrian National Council was recognized or supported in some capacity by at least 17member states of the United Nations,with three of those (France, United Kingdom and the United States) being permanent members of theSecurity Council.[13][14][15][16][17][18]

A broader opposition umbrella group, theNational Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces,was formed in November 2012 and has gained recognition as the "legitimate representative of the Syrian people" by theCooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf(CCASG) and as a "representative of aspirations of Syrian people" by theArab League.[19]The Syrian National Coalition was subsequently considered to take the seat of Syria in the Arab League, with the representative ofBashar Al-Assad'sgovernment suspended that year. The Syrian National Council, initially a part of the Syrian National Coalition, withdrew on 20 January 2014 in protest at the decision of the coalition to attend theGeneva talks.[20]Despite tensions, the Syrian National Council retained a degree of ties with the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces. Syrian opposition groups held reconciliation talks in Astana, Kazakhstan in October 2015.[21]In late 2015, theSyrian Interim Governmentrelocated its headquarters to the city ofAzazin North Syria and began to execute some authority in the area. In 2017, the opposition government in theIdlib Governoratewas challenged by the rivalSyrian Salvation Government,backed by the Islamist factionHayat Tahrir al-Sham(HTS).

A July 2015 ORB International poll of 1,365 adults across all of Syria's 14 governorates found that about 26 percent of the population supported the Syrian opposition (41 percent in the areas it controlled), compared to 47 percent who supported the Syrian Arab Republic's government (73 percent in the areas it controlled), 35 percent who supported theAl-Nusra Front(58 percent in the areas it controlled), and 22 percent who supported theIslamic State(71 percent in the areas it controlled).[22]A March 2018 ORB International Poll with a similar method and sample size found that support had changed to 40% Syrian government, 40% Syrian opposition (in general), 15%Syrian Democratic Forces,10% al-Nusra Front, and 4% Islamic State (crossover may exist between supporters of factions).[23]

Background

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Syria has been an independent republic since 1946 after the expulsion of theFrench forces.For decades, the country was partially stable with a series of coups until theBa'ath Partyseized power in Syria in 1963 after acoup d'état.The head of state since 1971 has been a member of theAssad dynasty,beginning withHafez al-Assad(1971–2000). Syria was underemergency lawfrom the time of the 1963 Syrian coup d'état until 21 April 2011, when it was rescinded byBashar al-Assad,Hafez's eldest surviving son and the currentPresident of Syria.[24]

The rule of Assad dynasty was marked by heavy repression of secular opposition factions such as theArab nationalistNasseristsandliberal democrats.The biggest organised resistance to the Ba’athist rule has been theSyrian Muslim Brotherhood;which successfully capitalised on the widespread Sunni resentment against theAlawitehegemony. SyrianIkhwanwas inspired by theSyrian Salafiyyamovement led byMuhammad Rashid Rida,an influential Sunni Islamic theologian who is respected as theirImam.In line with the teachings of Rashid Rida, the Muslim Brotherhood advocates the replacement of theBa’ath partyrule with anIslamic stateled by anEmirelected by qualified Muslim delegates known asAhl al-Hall wa-al-‘Aqd.The Islamic government should implement laws based onsharia(Islamic law) with the assistance ofulemawho are to be consulted on solving contemporary challenges. The power of the ruler is also to be checked by the provisions laid out in an Islamic constitution throughshura(consultation) with theAhl al-Hall wa-al-‘Aqd.Assad regime introduced Law No. 49 in 1980 which banned the movement and instituted death penalty of anyone accused of membership in the Brotherhood. In response, the Syrian Islamic Front was established the same year to topple theAssadistmilitary dictatorshipthrough an armed revolution. The Front got widespread support from the traditional Sunniulemaand the conservative population; enabling the SyrianIkhwan al-Muslimeento rise as the most powerful opposition force by the 1980s.[25][26]

As therevolutionary wavecommonly referred to as theArab Springbegan to take shape in early 2011, Syrian protesters began consolidating opposition councils.

History

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TheIstanbul Meeting for Syria,the first convention of the Syrian opposition, took place on 26 April 2011, during theSyrian civil uprising.There followed theAntalya Conference for Change in SyriaorAntalya Opposition Conference,a three-dayconferenceof representatives of the Syrian opposition held from 31 May until 3 June 2011 inAntalya,Turkey.

Organized byAmmar al-Qurabi'sNational Organization for Human Rights in Syriaand financed by the wealthy Damascene Sanqar family, it led to a final statement refusing compromise or reform solutions, and to the election of a 31-member leadership.

After the Antalya conference, a follow-up meeting took place two days later inBrussels,then another gathering in Paris that was addressed byBernard Henri Levy.[27]It took a number of further meetings inIstanbulandDohabefore yet another meeting on 23 August 2011 inIstanbulset up a permanent transitional council in form of theSyrian National Council.[28]

Political groups

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The Syrian opposition does not have a definitive political structure. In December 2015, members of the Syrian opposition convened inRiyadh,Saudi Arabia: 34 groups attended the convention, which aimed to produce a unified delegation for negotiations with theSyrian government.[29]Notable groups present included:

The December 2015 convention notably did not include:[29]

National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces

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Main article:National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces
Official logo of the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces.

TheNational Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forcesis a coalition of opposition groups and individuals, mostly exilic, who support the Syrian revolutionary side and oppose the Assad government ruling Syria. It formed on 11 November 2012 at a conference of opposition groups and individuals held inDoha,Qatar.It has relations with other opposition organizations such as the Syrian National Council, the previous iteration of an exilic political body attempting to represent the grassroots movement; the union of the two was planned, but has failed to realize. Moderate Islamic preacherMoaz al-Khatib,who had protested on the Syrian street in the early nonviolent phase of the uprising, served a term as the president of the coalition, but soon resigned his post, frustrated with the gap between the body and the grassroots of the uprising inside Syria.[30]Riad SeifandSuheir Atassi,both of whom had also protested on the street in Syria early in the uprising, were elected as vice presidents. Mustafa Sabbagh is the coalition's secretary-general.[31]

Notable members of the Coalition include:

Syrian National Council

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Main article:Syrian National Council

TheSyrian National Council(al-Majlisal-Waṭanī as-Sūri) sometimes known asSNC,[34][35]theSyrian National Transitional Council[36]or theNational Council of Syria,is a Syrian opposition coalition, based inIstanbul(Turkey), formed in August 2011 during theSyrian civil uprisingagainst the government ofBashar al-Assad.[37][38]

Initially, the council denied seeking to play the role of agovernment in exile,[39]but this changed a few months later when violence in Syria intensified.[40][41][42]The Syrian National Council seeks the end of Bashar al-Assad's rule and the establishment of a modern, civil,democratic state.The SNC National Charter listshuman rights,judicial independence,press freedom,democracyandpolitical pluralismas its guiding principles.[43]

In November 2012 the Council agreed to unite with several other opposition groups to form theNational Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces,with the SNC having 22 out of 60 seats.[44][45][46]The Council withdrew from the Coalition on 20 January 2014 in protest at the decision of the Coalition to attendtalks in Geneva.[47]

Notable members of the Council include:

National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change

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Main article:National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change

TheNational Coordination Committee for Democratic Change(NCC), orNational Coordination Body for Democratic Change[50](NCB), is a Syrian bloc chaired by Hassan Abdel Azim and consisting of 13left-wing politicalparties and "independent political and youth activists".[51]Reutershas defined the committee as theinternal opposition's main umbrella group.[52]The NCC initially had severalKurdishpolitical parties as members, but all except for theDemocratic Union Partyleft in October 2011 to join theKurdish National Council.[53]Some opposition activists[who?]have accused the NCC of being a "front organization"forBashar al-Assad's government and have denounced some of its members as ex-government insiders.[54]

The NCC generally has poor relationships with other Syrian political opposition groups. TheSyrian Revolution General Commission,theLocal Coordination Committees of Syria,and theSupreme Council of the Syrian Revolutionoppose the NCC calls to dialogue with the Syrian government.[55]In September 2012 theSyrian National Council(SNC) reaffirmed that despite broadening its membership, it would not join with "currents close to [the] NCC".[56]Despite the NCC recognizing theFree Syrian Army(FSA) on 23 September 2012,[57]the FSA has dismissed the NCC as an extension of the government, stating that "this opposition is just the other face of the same coin".[52]

Notable former members of the Committee have included:

Syrian Democratic Council

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Main article:Syrian Democratic Council

The Syrian Democratic Council was established on 10 December 2015 inal-Malikiyah.It was co-founded by prominent human rights activistHaytham Mannaand was intended as the political wing of theSyrian Democratic Forces.The council includes more than a dozen blocs and coalitions that supportfederalismin Syria, including theMovement for a Democratic Society,theKurdish National Alliance in Syria,theLaw–Citizenship–Rights Movement,and since September 2016 theSyria's Tomorrow Movement.The last group is led by former National Coalition president and Syrian National CouncilAhmad Jarba.In August 2016 the SDC opened a public office inal-Hasakah.[60]

The Syrian Democratic Council is considered an "alternative opposition" bloc.[61]Its leaders included former NCC members such asRiad Darar,a "key figure" in the Syrian opposition, andHaytham Manna,who resigned from the SDC in March 2016 in protest of its announcement of theNorthern Syria Federation.[62]The SDC was rejected by some other opposition groups due to its system of federalism.[63]

The Syrian Democratic Council was invited to participate in the internationalGeneva III peace talks on Syriain March 2016. However, it rejected the invitations because no representatives of theMovement for a Democratic Society,led by theDemocratic Union Party,were invited.[citation needed]

Other groups affiliated with Syrian opposition

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  • Syrian Opposition Randa Kassis
  • Syrian Opposition Randa Kassis
  • Syrian Opposition Randa Kassis
  • Syrian Turkmen Assembly:A recently formed assembly ofSyrian Turkmenswhich constitutes a coalition of Turkmen parties and groups in Syria. It is against the partition of Syria after the collapse of Baath government. The common decision of Syrian Turkmen Assembly is:"Regardless of any ethnic or religious identity, a future in which everybody can be able to live commonly under the identity of Syrian is targeted in the future of Syria."[78]
    • Syrian Turkmen National Bloc:An opposition party of Syrian Turkmens, which was founded in February 2012. The chairman of the political party is Yusuf Molla.
  • Local Coordination Committees of Syria:Network of local protest groups that organise and report on protests as part of the Syrian civil war, founded in 2011.[79][80]As of August 2011,the network supportedcivil disobedienceand opposed local armed resistance and international military intervention as methods of opposing the Syrian government.[81]Key people are activistsRazan ZaitounehandSuhair al-Atassi.[82]
  • Syrian National Democratic Council:formed in Paris on 13 November 2011 during the Syrian civil war byRifaat al-Assad,uncle of Bashar al-Assad. Rifaat al-Assad has expressed the wish to replace Bashar al-Assad with the authoritarian state apparatus intact, and to guarantee the safety of government members, while also making vague allusions to a "transition".[83]Rifaat has his own political organisation, the United National Democratic Rally.[84]
  • Syrian Revolution General Commission:Syrian coalition of 40 Syrian opposition groups to unite their efforts during the Syrian civil war that was announced on 19 August 2011 inIstanbul.[85]

Other opposition groups

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Parliamentary opposition

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Several political parties and organizations existed inside Syria, and they reached the dome of thePeople's Assembly.Among these parties are included:

Governance

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Syrian Interim Government

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Main article:Syrian Interim Government

At a conference held in Istanbul on 19 March 2013 members of the National Coalition electedGhassan Hittoas prime minister of aninterim governmentfor Syria, the Syrian Interim Government (SIG). Hitto has announced that atechnical governmentwill be formed which will be led by between 10 and 12 ministers, with theFree Syrian Armychoosing the Minister of Defense.[97]The SIG is based in Turkey. It has been the primary civilian authority throughout most of opposition-held Syria. Its system of administrative local councils operate services such as schools and hospitals in these areas, as well as the Free Aleppo University.[98][99]By late 2017, it presided over 12 provincial councils and over 400 elected local councils. It also operates a major border crossing between Syria and Turkey, which generates an estimated $1 million revenue each month.[98]It is internationally recognized by the European Union and the United States, among others. It maintains diplomatic ties with some non-FSA rebel groups, such asAhrar al-Sham,but is in conflict with the more extremeTahrir al-Sham,which is one of the largest armed groups in Idlib Governorate.[98]

Syrian Salvation Government

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Main article:Syrian Salvation Government

TheSyrian Salvation Governmentis an alternative government of the Syrian opposition seated withinIdlib Governorate,which was formed by the General Syrian Conference in September 2017.[100]The domestic group has appointed Mohammed al-Sheikh as head of the Government with 11 more ministers for Interior, Justice, Endowment, Higher Education, Education, Health, Agriculture, Economy, Social Affairs and Displaced, Housing and Reconstruction and Local Administration and Services. Al-Sheikh, in a press conference held at theBab al-Hawa Border Crossinghas also announced the formation of four commissions: Inspection Authority, Prisoners and missing Affairs, Planning and Statistics Authority, and the Union of Trade Unions.[101]The founder of theFree Syrian Army,Col.Riad al-Asaad,was appointed as deputy prime minister for military affairs.[citation needed]The SSG is associated withHay'at Tahrir al-Sham(HTS) and not recognised by the rest of the opposition, which is in conflict with HTS.[101]

There is a sharp ideological divide between the two competing opposition civil authorities: The SIG espousessecular,moderate values and regularly participates in international peace talks; the SSG enforces a strict interpretation of Islamic law and stringently rejects talks with the Syrian regime.[98]

Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria

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Main article:Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria

TheAutonomous Administration of North and East Syriais an area that extends in northeastern Syria and includes parts of the governorates Al-Hasakah, Al-Raqqa, Aleppo and Deir ez-Zor.[102]The capital of the area isAin Issa,a town belonging to the Al-Raqqa governorate.[103]The Administration is headed bySiham QaryoandFarid Attiwith a joint head.[104]In January 2014, a number of parties, social actors, and civil institutions announced the formation of the Autonomous Administration to fill the power vacuum that existed at that time in the Syrian Kurdish regions.[105]Although its authority has not been recognized or authorized by any formal agreement involving the sovereign Syrian state or any international power, its presence in the region and its ability to wield power was unchallenged.[102]

Territorial control

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Military situation in the Syrian Civil War as of January 2024.
Controlled bySyrian Arab Republic
ControlledbySyrian Interim Government(SNA) andTurkish Armed Forces
Controlled bySyrian Salvation Government(HTS)
Controlled byAutonomous Administration of North and East Syria(SDF)
Controlled byRevolutionary Commando ArmyandUnited States Armed Forces
Controlled bythe Islamic State(IS)

(For a more detailed, interactive map, seeTemplate:Syrian Civil War detailed map.)

Various Syrian opposition groups have at least some presence in seven Syrian governorates, though none is fully under the control of the entity. Governorates with partial opposition control include:

Governorates under partial control of opposition groups aligned with the Syrian Interim Government:

Governorates under partial control of opposition groups aligned with the Syrian Democratic Council:

Turkish-controlled territories and territories controlled by the Syrian Interim Government

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In April 2015, after theSecond Battle of Idlib,the interim seat of the Syrian Interim Government was proposed to be Idlib, in the Idlib Governorate. However, this move was rejected by theal-Nusra FrontandAhrar al-Sham-ledArmy of Conquest,which between them controlled Idlib.[106]According to the Syrian National Coalition, in 2017 there were 404 opposition-aligned local councils operating in villages, towns, and cities controlled by rebel forces.[107]In 2016, the Syrian Interim Government became established within theTurkish Controlled areas.

Territories governed by the Salvation Government

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The Salvation Government extends authority mostly in the Idlib Governorate.

Al-Tanf Garrison

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The Syrian Free Army maintains the al-Tanf Garrison. Due to this garrison being inside an American De-Escalation zone, the garrison is not often attacked, nor does it often attempt to expand its territory.

Recognition and foreign relations

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Main articles:Foreign relations of the Syrian oppositionandInternational recognition of the Syrian National Council

Theforeign relations of the Syrian oppositionrefers to the external relations of the self-proclaimed oppositional Syrian Arab Republic, which sees itself as the genuine Syria. The region of control of Syrian opposition affiliated groups is not well defined. The Turkish government recognizes Syrian opposition as the genuine Syrian Arab Republic and hosts several of its institutions on its territory. The seat of Syria in the Arab League is reserved for the Syrian opposition since 2014, but not populated.[citation needed]

The opposition as a whole is characterised as "terrorist" byIran,[108]Russia[109]and Syria.[110]

Military forces

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Main article:Syrian Revolutionary Command Council

Initially, theFree Syrian Armywas perceived as the ultimate military force of the Syrian Opposition, but with the collapse of many FSA factions and emergence of powerful Islamist groups, it became clear to the opposition that only a cooperation of secular military forces and moderate Islamists could form a sufficient coalition to battle both the Syrian Government forces and radical Jihadists such asISILand in some casesal-Nusra Front.

In 2014, the military forces associated with the Syrian Opposition were defined by theSyrian Revolutionary Command Council,which in turn was mainly relying on theFree Syrian Army(with links toSyrian National Coalition) and theIslamic Front (Syria).Members of the Syrian Revolutionary Command Council:

  • Free Syrian Army:Paramilitarythat has been active during the Syrian civil war.[111][112]Composed mainly of defectedSyrian Armed Forcespersonnel,[113][114]its formation was announced on 29 July 2011 in a video released on the Internet by a uniformed group of deserters from the Syrian military who called upon members of the Syrian army to defect and join them.[115]The leader of the group, who identified himself as ColonelRiad al-Asaad,announced that the Free Syrian Army would work with demonstrators to bring down the system, and declared that all security forces attacking civilians are justified targets.[116][117]It has also been reported that many former Syrian Consulates are trying to band together a Free Syrian Navy from fishermen and defectors to secure the coast.[118]
Revolutionary Commando Armyfighters duringM240B machine guntraining withU.S. Army Special Forces,al-Tanf,4 March 2020

Other rebel fighting forces:

List of opposition figures

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See also

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References

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