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Ājīvika

Ajivika(Sanskrit:आजीविक,IAST:Ājīvika) is one of thenāstikaor "heterodox" schools ofIndian philosophy.[5][6][7][8]Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE byMakkhali Gosāla,it was aŚramaṇamovement and a major rival ofVedic religion,early Buddhism,andJainism.[5][6][9]Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.[5][6][10]The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.[11]

Ājīvika
An Ājīvika ascetic in aGandharasculpture of the Mahaparinirvana, circa 2nd–3rd century CE[1][2][3]
On the left:Mahākāśyapameets an Ājīvika and learns of theparinirvana.[4]

Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.[5][6]Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources ofancient Indian literature.[5][6][12]The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in theBuddhistandJainascriptures of ancient India.[5][6][13]Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.[6][14]It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.[6]

The Ājīvika school is known for itsNiyati( "Fate") doctrine of absolutefatalismordeterminism,[6][8][15]the premise that there is nofree will,that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles.[6][8][12]The predetermined fate of living beings was the major distinctive doctrine of their school, along with withholding judgement on how to achieve liberation (moksha) from theeternal cycle of birth, death, and rebirth,instead believing that fate would lead us there.[6][15]Ājīvikas further considered thekarmadoctrine as a fallacy.[16]Ājīvikametaphysicsincluded atheory of atoms,which was later adapted in theVaiśeṣikaschool, where everything was composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms were predetermined by cosmic laws and forces.[6][17]Ājīvikas were mostly considered asatheists.[18]They believed that in every living being there is anātman—a central premise of Vedic religion and Jainism.[19][20][21]

Ājīvika philosophy, otherwise referred to as Ājīvikism inWestern scholarship,[6]reached the height of its popularity during the rule of theMauryan emperorBindusara,around the 4th century BCE. This school of thought declined but survived for nearly 2,000 years through the 13th and 14th centuries CE in theSouthern Indianstates ofKarnatakaandTamil Nadu.[5][7][16][22]The Ājīvika philosophy, along with theCārvākaphilosophy, appealed most to the warrior, industrial, and mercantile classes ofancient Indian society.[23]

Etymology and meaning

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Ājīvikameans "Follower of the Way of Life".[5]Ajivika (Prakrit:𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓,ājīvika;[24]Sanskrit:आजीविक,IAST:ājīvika) or adivika (Prakrit:𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓,ādīvika)[25]are both derived from Sanskritआजीव(ājīva) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".[26][27]The termAjivikameans "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.[7][12]

The nameAjivikafor an entire philosophy resonates with its core belief in "no free will" and completeniyati,literally "inner order of things, self-command,predeterminism",leading to the premise that good simple living is not a means to salvation ormoksha,just a means to true livelihood, predetermined profession and way of life.[27][28]The name came to imply that school of Indian philosophy which lived a good simple mendicant-like livelihood for its own sake and as part of its predeterministic beliefs, rather than for the sake of after-life or motivated by anysoteriologicalreasons.[12][27]

Some scholars spell Ajivika as Ajivaka.[29]

History

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Origins

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Views of the six heretical teachers
The views of sixśramaṇain the Pāli Canon, known as thesix heretical teachers,based on theSāmaññaphala Sutta.[30]
Pūraṇa Kassapa
Amoralism
(akiriyavāda;natthikavāda)		There is no reward or punishment for either good or bad deeds.
Makkhali Gośāla(Ājīvika)
Fatalism
(ahetukavāda;niyativāda)		We are powerless; suffering is pre-destined.
Ajita Kesakambalī(Charvaka)
Materialism
(ucchedavāda;natthikavāda)		Live happily; with death, all is annihilated.
Pakudha Kaccāyana
Eternalism and categoricalism(sassatavāda;sattakāyavāda)Matter, pleasure, pain and the soul are eternal and do not interact.
Mahavira(Jainism)
Restraint
(mahāvrata)		Be endowed with, cleansed by, and suffused with [merely] the avoidance of all evil.[31]
Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta(Ajñana)
Agnosticism
(amarāvikkhepavāda)		"I don't think so. I don't think in that way or otherwise. I don't think not or not not." Suspension of judgement.

Ājīvika philosophy is cited in ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism toMakkhali Gosala,a contemporary ofthe BuddhaandMahavira.[27]InSandaka Suttathe Ājīvikas are said to recognize three emancipators: Nanda Vaccha, Kisa Saṅkicca, and Makkhali Gosāla. Exact origins of Ājīvika is unknown, but generally accepted to be the 5th century BCE.[7]

Primary sources and literature of the Ājīvikas are lost, or yet to be found. Everything that is known about Ājīvika history and its philosophy is from secondary sources, such as the ancient and medieval texts of India.[12]Inconsistent fragments of Ājīvika history are found mostly in Jain texts such as theBhagvati Sutraand Buddhist texts such as theSamaññaphala SuttaandSandaka Sutta,andBuddhaghosa's commentary on Sammannaphala Sutta,[12][27]with a few mentions in Hindu texts such as Vayu Purana.[32][33]

The Ājīvikas reached the height of their prominence in the late 1st millennium BCE, then declined, yet continued to exist in south India until the 14th century CE, as evidenced by inscriptions found in southern India.[8][16]Ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism mention a city in the 1st millennium BCE namedSavatthi(SanskritŚravasti) as the hub of the Ājīvikas; it was located nearAyodhyain what is now theNorth Indianstate ofUttar Pradesh.In later part of the common era, inscriptions suggests that the Ājīvikas had a significant presence in theSouth Indianstate ofKarnataka,prominently in Kolar district and some places ofTamil Nadu.[16]

The Ājīvika philosophy spread rapidly in ancient South Asia, with aSangha Geham(community center) for Ājīvikas on the island now known asSri Lankaand also extending into the western state ofGujaratby the 4th century BCE, the era of theMaurya Empire.[10]

Classification in Hindu philosophy

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Riepe refers to Ājīvikas as a distinct heterodox school of Indian tradition.[34]Raju states that "Ājīvikas andCārvākascan be calledHindus"and adds that" the word Hinduism has no definite meaning ".[35]Epigraphicalevidence suggests that emperorAshoka,in the 3rd century BCE, considered Ājīvikas to be more closely related to the schools of Vedic's than to Buddhists, Jainas or other Indian schools of thought.[36]

Ashoka Barabar Caves Edicts for Ajivikas[37]

Biography of Makkhali Gosala

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Ashoka'sSeventh Pillar Edictmentions Ajivikas: "SomeMahamatraswere ordered by me to busy themselves with the affairs of theSamgha.Likewise others were ordered by me to busy themselves also with the Brahmanas (and) Ajivikas "(Line 25).[38][16][39]Photograph of the portion of the 7th Edict, in theBrahmi scripton theAshoka pillarofFeroz Shah Kotla,New Delhi(3rd century BCE), with"Ājīvikesu"(𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓𑁂𑀲𑀼) inscription.[24]

Makkhali Gosala (Pali;SanskritGośala Maskariputra,c. 484 BCE) is generally considered as the founder of the Ājīvika movement.[8][12]Some sources state that Gosala was only a leader of a large Ājīvika congregation of ascetics, but not the founder of the movement himself.[citation needed]The Swedish IndologistJarl Charpentierand others suggest the Ājīvika tradition existed in India well before the birth of Makkhali Gosala, citing a variety of ancient Indian texts.[28]

Gosala was believed to be born in Tiruppatur of Tiruchirappalli district in Tamil Nadu[40][unreliable source?]and was the son of Mankha, a professional mendicant. His mother was Bhaddā.[41]His name Gosala "cowshed" refers to his humble birthplace.

While Bhaddā was pregnant, she and her husband Mankhali, the mankha, came to the village... of Saravaṇa, where dwelt a wealthy householder Gobahula. Mankhali left his wife and his luggage... in Gobahula's cowshed (gosālā)... Since he could find no shelter elsewhere the couple continued to live in a corner of the cowshed, and it was there that Bhaddā gave birth to her child. "[42]

Gosala is described in ancient texts as a contemporary ofMahavira,the 24thTirthankaraofJainism,and ofGautama Buddha.The JainBhagavati Sutrarefers to him as Gosala Mankhaliputta ( "son of Mankhali" ). The text depicts Gosala as having been a disciple of Mahavira's for a period of six years, after which the two had a falling out and parted ways.[27]According to theBhagvati Sutra,Makkhali Gosala met with Mahāvīra again later in life, but Gosala asserted to Mahavira that he was not the same person. Makkhali Gosala referred to the example of a sesame plant which "had been pulled up, and had temporarily died, but it had been replanted and thus reanimated, becoming once more living, while the seven pods had developed".[43]Gosāla declared that the original Gosāla, who was Mahavira's companion, was once dead and that the soul now inhabiting the apparent Gosāla in front of him was a reanimated, different Gosala.[27][44]This argument was declared a form of sophistry by Mahavira, and this led to a significant break in the relations between the two.

Inscriptions and caves

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The 3rd century BCE mendicant caves of the Ājīvikas (Barabar, nearGaya,Bihar)[45]
Dedicatory inscription of Ashoka in Visvakarma/Viswamitra cave, Barabar. The word "Ājīvikas" (𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓𑁂𑀳𑀺,Ādīvikehi)[46][47]was later attacked with the burin, at a time when the Brahmi script was still understood, i.e. before the 5th century, but remains decipherable.[48]

Several rock-cut caves belonging to Ājīvikas are dated to the times of the Mauryan emperorAshoka(r. 273 BCE to 232 BCE). These are the oldest surviving cave temples of ancient India, and are called theBarabar Cavesin Jehanabad district ofBihar.[49]The Barabar caves were carved out of granite, has a highly polished internal cave surfaces, and each consists of two chambers, the first is a large rectangular hall, the second is a small, circular, domed chamber. These were probably used for meditation.[49]

The Ashokan dedications of several Barabar Caves to the Ajivikas were engraved during the 12th year and the 19th year of his reign (about 258 BCE and 251 BCE respectively, based on a coronation date of 269 BCE). In several instances, the word "Ājīvikas" (𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓𑁂𑀳𑀺,Ādīvikehi)[47][46]was later attacked by the chisel, probably by religious rivals, at a time when the Brahmi script was still understood (probably before the 5th century CE). However, the original inscriptions being deep, they remain easily decipherable.[48]

Decline

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After the decline of theMaurya Empirein the 2nd century BCE, the Ajivikas find only occasional mentions in the Sanskrit literature and do not appear to have been serious rivals to other sects. The final version of the Buddhist and Jain scriptures were compiled at a later period, but the description of Ajivikas in these texts likely represents the conditions of the Maurya and pre-Maurya times.[50]The termAajivikehiis often found erased in nearly all Mauryan cave inscriptions ofBarabar and Nagarjuni Caves.It seems that during the reign of theMaukhariruler Anantavarma, when idols of Krishna and Shiva were installed in these caves, this term was erased, leading to a decline in the influence of the Aajivikas.[51]

In northern India, Ajivikas may have become insignificant by theShunga period(1st century BCE), although they may have survived until the 15th century, as suggested by stray references to them in various texts.[52]References in theVayu Puranasuggest that during theGupta period(fourth-6th century CE) the Ajivika practices had changed substantially, and their sect was declining rapidly.[53]

TheBrhaj-jatakaofVarahamihira(6th century) mentions the Ajivikas (among other major ascetic groups) in an astrological context, stating that a person born under a certain planetary influence becomes an Ajivika ascetic. According to the 9th-10th century commentatorUtpala,"Ajivika" in this context refers to theVaishnaviteEkadandin ascetics. However, according to historianAjay Mitra Shastri,Varahamihira indeed refers to the Ajivikas, who may have existed as an influential sect in the 6th century.[54]A.L. Bashamnotes that there are several such instances of Ajivikas being confused with other major sects: for example, the commentator ofAchara-sarabelieves them to be Buddhist, and inNeelakesi,the Ajivika leader clarifies that his followers should not be mistaken forDigambaras.According to Basham, this suggests that the surviving Ajivikas adopted some of the beliefs and customs of the more popular faiths and possibly merged with them.[55]

The Jain commentator Mallisena, who wroteSyadvada-manjari(1292 CE), suggests that the Ajivikas existed during his time; he may have been aware of the Ajivikas of southern India.[56]At least 17 inscriptions from southern India suggest that a tax was imposed on Ajivikas or Acuvas (believed to be a Tamil form of Ajivikas) there. These inscriptions range from the time of the Pallava kingSimhavarman II(c. 446 CE) to the 14th century. The last of these inscriptions are dated to 1346 CE (Shaka1268), found at three different places aroundKolar.E. HultzschandRudolf Hoernlétheorized that the term Ajivika (Acuva) refers to Jains in this context, and some others—such as A. Chakravarti—doubt the equivalence of the terms "Ajivika" and "Acuva". However, Basham believes that these inscriptions indeed refer to the Ajivikas and that they may have survived there until the 15th century, as suggested by the writings ofVaidyanatha Dikshita.[57]The Ajivikas may have completely declined because of the growing Hindu, Buddhist and Jain influence.[58]

The 14th centurySarva-Darshana-Sangraha,a compendium of the Indian philosophical systems, makes no mention of Ajivikas, which indicates the decline of their sect.[52]


Reliability of sources

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Ājīvikas competed with and debated the scholars of Buddhism, Jainism, and Vedic's. The Ājīvika movement is primarily known from historical references left behind in Jain and Buddhist sources, that may therefore be hostile to it.[16]It is unknown to what degree the available non-Ājīvika sources reflect the actual beliefs and practices of the Ājīvikas. Most of what is known about them was recorded in the literature of rival groups, modern scholars question the reliability of the secondary sources, and whether intentional distortions for dehumanization and criticism were introduced into the records.[14][33]

More recent work by scholars suggests that the Ājīvika were perhaps misrepresented by Jain and Buddhist sources.

[Johannes Bronkhorst's] claim is that, whereas the Jains teach that one can both stop the influx of new karma and rid oneself of old karma through ascetic practice, Gosāla taught that one could only stop the influx of new karma. [...] Ascetic practice can be effective in preventing further karmic influx, which helps to explain the otherwise inexplicable fact that the Ājīvikas did practice asceticism. [...] [T]he popularity of the Ājīvika doctrine in ancient times, such that it could rival that of both Jainism and Buddhism, also make sense if this doctrine was really not so radically different from these traditions as its presentation in Jain and Buddhist sources suggests.[59]

Paul Dundasstates that the Jain and Buddhist texts cannot be considered reliable source of Ājīvika history and philosophy, because "it seems doubtful whether a doctrine [of Ajivikas] which genuinely advocated the lack of efficacy of individual effort could have formed the basis of a renunciatory path to spiritual liberation", and that "the suspicion must be that the Jains and Buddhists deliberately distorted Ajivika doctrine for their own polemical purposes".[14]In contrast, other scholars[27]suggest that at least the common elements found about Ājīvikas in Jain and Buddhist literature may be considered, because Jainism and Buddhism were two different, competing and conflicting philosophies in ancient India.

Philosophy

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Tile possibly representing Ajivika ascetics

Absolute determinism and no free will

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The problems of time and change was one of the main interests of the Ajivikas. Their views on this subject may have been influenced by Vedic sources, such as the hymn toKala(Time) inAtharvaveda.[60]Both Jaina and Buddhist texts state that Ājīvikas believed in absolute determinism, absence of free will, and called thisniyati.[8][12]Everything in human life and the universe, according to Ajivikas, was pre-determined, operating out of cosmic principles, and true choice did not exist.[12][61]The Buddhist and Jaina sources describe them as strict fatalists, who did not believe inkarma.[8][16]The Ajivikas philosophy held that all things are preordained, and therefore religious or ethical practice has no effect on one's future, and people do things because cosmic principles make them do so, and all that will happen or will exist in future is already predetermined to be that way. No human effort could change thisniyatiand thekarmaethical theory was a fallacy.[16]James Lochtefeld summarizes this aspect of Ajivika belief as, "life and the universe is like a ball of pre-wrapped up string, which unrolls until it was done and then goes no further".[8]

Riepe states that the Ajivika belief in predeterminism does not mean that they were pessimistic. Rather, just likeCalvinistsbelief in predeterminism in Europe, the Ajivikas were optimists.[62]The Ajivikas simply did not believe in the moral force of action, or in merits or demerits, or in after-life to be affected because of what one does or does not do. Actions had immediate effects in one's current life but without any moral traces, and both the action and the effect was predetermined, according to the Ajivikas.[62]

Makkhali Gosala seems to have combined the ideas of older schools of thought into an eclectic doctrine. He appears to have believed inniyati(destiny),svabhava(nature),sangati(change), and possiblyparinama,which may have prompted other philosophical schools to label him variously asahetuvadin,vainayikavadin,ajnanavadin,andissarakaranavadin.[63]According to him, all beings undergo development (parinama). This culminates in the course of time (samsarasuddhi) in final salvation to which all beings are destined under the impact of the factors ofniyati(destiny),bhava(nature), andsangati(change).[63]As such, destiny does not appear as the only player, but rather chance or indeterminism plays an equal part in his doctrine. He thus subscribed toniyativada(fatalism) only in the sense that he thought thatsomefuture events like salvation for all were strictly determined.[63]

Ajivikas and theism

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Ajivika was an atheistic philosophy.[64]Its adherents did not presume any deity as the creator of the universe, or as prime mover, or that some unseen mystical end was the final resting place of the cosmos.[65]

In later texts, the TamilNīlakēci,a story of two divinities, Okkali and Ōkali, relates the Ājīvikas instructed men in the scriptures.[66]

Ajivikas believed that in every being, there is a soul (Atman). However, unlike Jains and various orthodox schools of Hinduism that held that the soul is formless, Ajivikas asserted the soul has a material form, one that helps meditation.[67]They also believed the soul passes through many births and ultimately progresses unto its pre-destinednirvana(salvation).[68]Basham states, that some texts suggest evidence ofVaishnavism-type devotional practices among some Ajivikas.[69]

Atomism

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Ajivikas developed a theory of elements and atoms similar to theVaisheshikaschool of Vedic's. Everything was composed of minuscule atoms, according to Ajivikas, and qualities of things are derived from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms were predetermined by cosmic forces.[17]

The description of Ajivikas' atomism is inconsistent with those described in Buddhist and Vedic texts. According to three Tamil texts,[62]the Ajivikas held there exists sevenkayas(Sanskrit: काय, assemblage, collection, elemental categories):pruthvi-kaya(earth),apo-kaya(water),tejo-kaya(fire),vayo-kaya(air),sukha(joy),dukkha(sorrow), andjiva(life).[17]The first four relate to matter, the last three non-matter. These elements areakata(that which is neither created nor destroyed),vanjha(barren, that which never multiplies or reproduces) and have an existence independent of the other.[17]The elements, asserts Ajivika theory in the Tamil text Manimekalai, are made ofparamanu(atoms), where atoms were defined as that which cannot be further subdivided, that which cannot penetrate another atom, that which is neither created nor destroyed, that which retains its identity by never growing nor expanding nor splitting nor changing, yet that which moves, assembles and combines to form the perceived.[17][62]

The Tamil text of Ajivikas asserts this "coming together of atoms can take diversity of forms, such as the dense form of a diamond, or a loose form of a hollow bamboo". Everything one perceives, states the atomism theory of Ajivikas, was mere juxtapositions of atoms of various types, and the combinations occur always in fixed ratios governed by certain cosmic rules, formingskandha(molecules, building blocks).[17][62]Atoms, asserted the Ajivikas, cannot be seen by themselves in their pure state, but only when they aggregate and formbhutas(objects).[17]They further argued that properties and tendencies are characteristics of the objects. The Ajivikas then proceeded to justify their belief in determinism and "no free will" by stating that everything experienced—sukha(joy),dukkha(sorrow), andjiva(life)—is a mere function of atoms operating under cosmic rules.[17][62]

Riepe states that the details of the Ajivikas theory of atomism provided the foundations of later modified atomism theories found in Jain, Buddhist, and Vedic traditions.[62]

Antinomian ethics

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Another doctrine of Ajivikas philosophy, according to Buddhist texts, was their antinomian ethics, that is there exist "no objective moral laws".[23][70]Buddhaghosa summarizes this view as, "There is neither cause nor basis for the sins of living beings and they become sinful without cause or basis. There is neither cause nor basis for the purity of living beings and they become pure without cause or basis. All beings, all that have breath, all that are born, all that have life, are without power, or strength, or virtue, but are the result of destiny, chance and nature, and they experience joy and sorrow in six classes".[23]

Despite this ascribed premise of antinomian ethics, both Jain and Buddhist records note that Ājīvikas lived a simple ascetic life, without clothes and material possessions.[8][12]

Tamil literature on Ajivikas suggests they practicedAhimsa(non-violence) and a vegetarian lifestyle.[71]Arthur Basham notes that Buddhist and Jaina texts variously accuse Ajivikas of immorality, unchastity, and worldliness, but they also acknowledge the confusion among Buddhists and Jainas when they observed the simple, ascetic lifestyle of Ajivikas.[72]

Scriptures

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The Ajivikas had a fully elaborate philosophy, produced by its scholars and logicians, but those texts are lost.[73]Their literature evolved over the centuries, like other traditions of Indian philosophy, through the medieval era. The Pali and Prakrit texts of Buddhism and Jainism suggest that Ajivika theories were codified, some of which were quoted in commentaries produced by Buddhist and Jaina scholars.[73]

The main texts of the Ajivikas included the tenPurvas(eightMahanimittas,twoMaggas) and theOnpatu Katir.[73]TheMahanimittasof Ajivikas claims Bhagavati Sutra was extracted from the teachings Gosala received from Mahavira when he was a disciple.[27]

The belief of Ajivikas in absolute determinism and influence of cosmic forces led them to develop extensive sections in their Mahanimittas texts on mapping the sun, moon, planets, and stars and their role in astrology and fortune telling.[74][75]

Influence

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Isaeva suggests that the ideas of Ajivika influenced Buddhism and various schools of Vedic thought.[7]Riepe provides an example of an influential Ajivika theory, namely, its theory on atomism.[62]Basham proposes that Ajivikas may have possibly influenced the doctrines of the Dvaita Vedanta sub-school of medieval Vedic philosophy.[76]

Conflict between Ajivikas, Buddhists and Jains

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According to the 4th century Buddhist legendAshokavadana,the Mauryan emperorBindusaraand his chief queenShubhadrangiwere believers of this philosophy, which reached its peak of popularity during this time.Ashokavadanaalso mentions that, after his conversion to Buddhism, Bindusara's sonAshokaissued an order to kill all the Ajivikas inPundravardhana,enraged at a picture that depicted Gautama Buddha in a negative light. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were supposedly executed as a result of this order.[77][78]The entire story may be apocryphal[79]and fictitious as Ashoka himself contributed for the growth of Ajivikas sect by constructing four caves for Ajivakas atBarabar.[80][81]

An earlier Jaina text, theBhagavati Sutra,similarly mentions a debate, disagreement, and then "coming to blows" between factions led by Mahavira and by Gosala.[27]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Balcerowicz, Piotr (2016)."A Religious Centre and the Art of the Ājīvikas".Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism.Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies (1st ed.).LondonandNew York:Routledge.pp. 278–281.ISBN978-1-317-53853-0.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2022.Retrieved24 February2022.
  2. ^"British Museum catalogue".Archivedfrom the original on 12 August 2019.Retrieved12 August2019.
  3. ^"British Museum catalogue".Archivedfrom the original on 12 August 2019.Retrieved12 August2019.
  4. ^Marianne Yaldiz, Herbert Härtel, Along the Ancient Silk Routes: Central Asian Art from the West Berlin State Museums; an Exhibition Lent by the Museum Für Indische Kunst, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1982, p. 78
  5. ^abcdefghJohnson, W. J. (2009)."Ājīvika".A Dictionary of Hinduism(1st ed.).OxfordandNew York:Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-172670-5.Archivedfrom the original on 1 March 2022.Retrieved24 February2022.Ājīvika('Follower of the Way of Life'): Name given to members of a heterodoxasceticorder, apparently founded at the same time as theBuddhistandJainaorders, and now extinct, although active inSouth Indiaas late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder,Makkhali Gosāla,was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be,Mahāvīra,until they fell out.
  6. ^abcdefghijklmBalcerowicz, Piotr (2016)."Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism".Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism.Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies (1st ed.).LondonandNew York:Routledge.pp. 136–174.ISBN978-1-317-53853-0.Archivedfrom the original on 24 February 2022.Retrieved24 February2022.The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea ofdeterminismandfate,which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (niyati-vāda), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (saṅgati-vāda), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (svabhāva-vāda), occasionally also linked tomaterialists,and the doctrine of fate (daiva-vāda), or simplyfatalism.The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them asniyati-vādins,or 'the propounders of the doctrine of destiny'.
  7. ^abcdeNatalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press,ISBN978-0791412817,pages 20-23
  8. ^abcdefghiJames Lochtefeld, "Ajivika",The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism,Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing.ISBN978-0823931798,page 22
  9. ^Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan,ISBN978-1845116255,page 199
  10. ^abBasham 1951,pp. 145–146.
  11. ^Fogelin, Lars (2015).An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism.Oxford University Press. p. 26.ISBN978-0-19-994822-2.Archivedfrom the original on 3 July 2023.Retrieved16 November2019.
  12. ^abcdefghijBasham 1951,Chapter 1.
  13. ^Basham 1951,pp. 224–238:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually calledNiyati.BuddhistandJainasources agree thatGosālawas a rigid determinist, who exaltedNiyatito the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in ourlocus classicus,theSamaññaphala Sutta.Sin and suffering, attributed byother sectsto the laws ofkarma,the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evilkarma,was likewise without cause or basis.
  14. ^abcPaul Dundas (2002), The Jains (The Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices), Routledge,ISBN978-0415266055,pages 28-30
  15. ^abLeaman, Oliver,ed. (1999)."Fatalism".Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy.Routledge Key Guides (1st ed.).LondonandNew York:Routledge.pp. 80–81.ISBN978-0-415-17363-6.Archivedfrom the original on 20 February 2022.Retrieved20 February2022.Fatalism.Some of the teachings ofIndian philosophyare fatalistic. For example, the Ajivika school argued that fate (nyati) governs both thecycle of birth and rebirth,and also individual lives. Suffering is not attributed to past actions, but just takes place without any cause or rationale, as does relief from suffering. There is nothing we can do to achievemoksha,we just have to hope that all will go well with us. [...] But the Ajivikas were committed toasceticism,and they justified this in terms of its practice being just as determined by fate as anything else.
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  22. ^Arthur Basham, Kenneth Zysk (1991),The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism,Oxford University Press,ISBN978-0195073492,Chapter 4
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  25. ^Senart (1876).Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second.pp.209–210.
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