Wikipedia

ALGOL

This article is about the programming language family. For other uses, seeAlgol (disambiguation).

ALGOL(/ˈælɡɒl,-ɡɔːl/;short for "Algorithmic Language")[1]is a family ofimperativecomputerprogramming languagesoriginally developed in 1958. ALGOL heavily influenced many other languages and was the standard method foralgorithmdescription used by theAssociation for Computing Machinery(ACM) in textbooks and academic sources for more than thirty years.[2]

ALGOL
A 1965 manual for ALGOL-20
ParadigmProcedural,imperative,structured
FamilyALGOL
Designed byBauer,Bottenbruch,Rutishauser,Samelson,Backus,Katz,Perlis,Wegstein,Naur,Vauquois,van Wijngaarden,Woodger,Green,McCarthy
First appeared1958;66 years ago(1958)
Typing disciplineStatic,strong
ScopeLexical
Influenced
Most subsequent imperative languages (including so-calledALGOL-likelanguages)
e.g.PL/I,Simula,Pascal,CandScheme

In the sense that thesyntaxof most modern languages is "Algol-like",[3]it was arguably more influential than three other high-level programming languages among which it was roughly contemporary:FORTRAN,Lisp,andCOBOL.[4]It was designed to avoid some of the perceived problems with FORTRAN and eventually gave rise to many other programming languages, includingPL/I,Simula,BCPL,B,Pascal,Ada,andC.

ALGOL introducedcode blocksand thebegin...endpairs for delimiting them. It was also the first language implementingnested functiondefinitions withlexical scope.Moreover, it was the first programming language which gave detailed attention to formal language definition and through theAlgol 60 ReportintroducedBackus–Naur form,a principalformal grammarnotation for language design.

There were three major specifications, named after the years they were first published:

  • ALGOL 58– originally proposed to be calledIAL,forInternational Algebraic Language.
  • ALGOL 60– first implemented asX1 ALGOL 60in 1961. Revised 1963.[5][6][7]
  • ALGOL 68– introduced new elements including flexible arrays, slices, parallelism, operator identification. Revised 1973.[8]

ALGOL 68 is substantially different from ALGOL 60 and was not well received,[according to whom?]so reference to "Algol" is generally understood to mean ALGOL 60 and its dialects.[citation needed]

History

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ALGOL was developed jointly by a committee of European and American computer scientists in a meeting in 1958 at theSwiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich(cf.ALGOL 58).[9]It specified three different syntaxes: a reference syntax, a publication syntax, and an implementation syntax, syntaxes that permitted it to use different keyword names and conventions for decimal points (commas vs periods) for different languages.[5]

ALGOL was used mostly by research computer scientists in the United States and in Europe; commercial applications were hindered by the absence of standardinput/outputfacilities in its description, and the lack of interest in the language by large computer vendors (other thanBurroughs Corporation).[10]ALGOL 60 did however become the standard for the publication of algorithms and had a profound effect on future language development.[10]

Family tree of the Algol,FortranandCOBOLprogramming language dynasty

John Backusdeveloped theBackus normal formmethod of describing programming languages specifically for ALGOL 58. It was revised and expanded byPeter Naurfor ALGOL 60, and atDonald Knuth's suggestion renamedBackus–Naur form.[11]

Peter Naur: "As editor of the ALGOL Bulletin I was drawn into the international discussions of the language and was selected to be member of the European language design group in November 1959. In this capacity I was the editor of the ALGOL 60 report, produced as the result of the ALGOL 60 meeting in Paris in January 1960."[12]

The following people attended the meeting in Paris (from 11 to 16 January):[5]

Alan Perlis gave a vivid description of the meeting: "The meetings were exhausting, interminable, and exhilarating. One became aggravated when one's good ideas were discarded along with the bad ones of others. Nevertheless, diligence persisted during the entire period. The chemistry of the 13 was excellent."[13]

ALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it.Tony Hoareremarked: "Here is a language so far ahead of its time that it was not only an improvement on its predecessors but also on nearly all its successors."[14]TheSchemeprogramming language, a variant ofLispthat adopted the block structure and lexical scope of ALGOL, also adopted the wording "Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme" for its standards documents in homage to ALGOL.[15]

ALGOL and programming language research

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AsPeter Landinnoted,[citation needed]ALGOL was the first language to combine seamlessly imperative effects with the (call-by-name)lambda calculus.[citation needed]Perhaps the most elegant formulation of the language is due toJohn C. Reynolds,and it best exhibits its syntactic and semantic purity.[according to whom?]Reynolds's idealized ALGOL also made a convincing methodologic argument regarding the suitability of local effects in the context of call-by-name languages, in contrast with the global effects used bycall-by-valuelanguages such asML.[citation needed]The conceptual integrity of the language made it one of the main objects of semantic research, along withProgramming Computable Functions(PCF) and ML.[citation needed]

IAL implementations timeline

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To date there have been at least 70 augmentations, extensions, derivations and sublanguages of Algol 60.[16]

Name Year Author Country Description Target CPU
ZMMD-implementation 1958 Friedrich L. Bauer,Heinz Rutishauser, Klaus Samelson, Hermann Bottenbruch Germany implementation ofALGOL 58 Z22
(laterZuse'sZ23was delivered with an Algol 60 compiler)[17]
X1 ALGOL 60 1960 August[18] Edsger W. DijkstraandJaap A. Zonneveld Netherlands First implementation of ALGOL 60[19] Electrologica X1
Elliott ALGOL 1960s C. A. R. Hoare UK Subject of the 1980Turing AwardLecture[20] Elliott 803,Elliott 503, Elliott 4100 series
JOVIAL 1960 Jules Schwartz US ADODHOLprior toAda Various (see article)
Burroughs Algol
(Several variants)		 1961 Burroughs Corporation(with participation by Hoare,Dijkstra,and others) US Basis of theBurroughs(and nowUnisysMCPbased) computers Burroughs Large Systemsand their midrange also.
Case ALGOL 1961 Case Institute of Technology[21] US Simulawas originally contracted as a simulation extension of the Case ALGOL UNIVAC 1107
GOGOL 1961 William M. McKeeman US For ODIN time-sharing system[22] PDP-1
RegneCentralen ALGOL 1961 Peter Naur,Jørn Jensen Denmark Implementation of full Algol 60 DASK at Regnecentralen
Dartmouth ALGOL 30 1962 Thomas Eugene Kurtzet al. US LGP-30
USS 90 Algol 1962 L. Petrone Italy
ALGOL 60 1962 Bernard Vauquois,Louis Bolliet[23] France Institut d'Informatique et Mathématiques Appliquées de Grenoble (IMAG) and Compagnie des Machines Bull Bull Gamma 60
Algol Translator 1962 G. van der Mey andW.L. van der Poel Netherlands Staatsbedrijf der Posterijen, Telegrafie en Telefonie ZEBRA
Kidsgrove Algol 1963 F. G. Duncan UK English Electric CompanyKDF9
VALGOL 1963 Val Schorre US A test of theMETA IIcompiler compiler
Whetstone 1964 Brian Randelland L. J. Russell UK Atomic Power Division of English Electric Company. Precursor toFerranti Pegasus,National Physical LaboratoriesACEandEnglish Electric DEUCEimplementations. English Electric CompanyKDF9
NU ALGOL 1965 Norway UNIVAC
ALGEK 1965 Soviet Union АЛГЭК, based on ALGOL-60 andCOBOLsupport, for economical tasks Minsk-22
ALGOL W 1966 Niklaus Wirth US Proposed successor to ALGOL 60 IBM System/360
MALGOL 1966 publ. A. Viil, M Kotli & M. Rakhendi, Estonian SSR Minsk-22
ALGAMS 1967 GAMS group (ГАМС, группа автоматизации программирования для машин среднего класса), cooperation of Comecon Academies of Science Comecon Minsk-22,laterES EVM,BESM
ALGOL/ZAM 1967 Poland PolishZAMcomputer
Simula 67 1967 Ole-Johan DahlandKristen Nygaard Norway Algol 60 with classes UNIVAC 1107
Triplex-ALGOL Karlsruhe 1967/1968 Karlsruhe,Germany ALGOL 60 (1963) withtriplex numbersforinterval arithmetic [24]
Chinese Algol 1972 China Chinese characters, expressed via the Symbol system
DG/L 1972 US DGEclipsefamily of Computers
S-algol 1979 Ron Morrison UK Addition of orthogonal datatypes with intended use as a teaching language PDP-11with a subsequent implementation on theJava VM

The Burroughs dialects included special Bootstrapping dialects such asESPOLandNEWP.The latter is still used for Unisys MCP system software.

Properties

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ALGOL 60 as officially defined had noI/Ofacilities; implementations defined their own in ways that were rarely compatible with each other. In contrast, ALGOL 68 offered an extensive library oftransput(input/output) facilities.

ALGOL 60 allowed for twoevaluation strategiesforparameterpassing: the commoncall-by-value,andcall-by-name.Call-by-name has certain effects in contrast tocall-by-reference.For example, without specifying the parameters asvalueorreference,it is impossible to develop a procedure that will swap the values of two parameters if the actual parameters that are passed in are an integer variable and an array that is indexed by that same integer variable.[25]Think of passing a pointer to swap(i, A[i]) in to a function. Now that every time swap is referenced, it is reevaluated. Say i:= 1 and A[i]:= 2, so every time swap is referenced it will return the other combination of the values ([1,2], [2,1], [1,2] and so on). A similar situation occurs with a random function passed as actual argument.

Call-by-name is known by many compiler designers for the interesting "thunks"that are used to implement it.Donald Knuthdevised the "man or boy test"to separate compilers that correctly implemented"recursionand non-local references. "This test contains an example of call-by-name.

ALGOL 68 was defined using a two-level grammar formalism invented byAdriaan van Wijngaardenand which bears his name.Van Wijngaarden grammarsuse acontext-free grammarto generate an infinite set of productions that will recognize a particular ALGOL 68 program; notably, they are able to express the kind of requirements that in many other programming language standards are labelled "semantics" and have to be expressed in ambiguity-prone natural language prose, and then implemented in compilers asad hoccode attached to the formal language parser.

Examples and portability

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Code sample comparisons

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ALGOL 60

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(The way the bold text has to be written depends on the implementation, e.g. 'INTEGER'—quotation marks included—for integer. This is known asstropping.) 

procedureAbsmax(a) Size:(n, m) Result:(y) Subscripts:(i, k);
valuen, m;arraya;integern, m, i, k;realy;
commentThe absolute greatest element of the matrix a, of size n by m,
is copied to y, and the subscripts of this element to i and k;
begin
integerp, q;
y:= 0; i:= k:= 1;
forp:= 1step1untilndo
forq:= 1step1untilmdo
ifabs(a[p, q]) > ythen
beginy:= abs(a[p, q]);
i:= p; k:= q
end
endAbsmax

Here is an example of how to produce atableusing Elliott 803 ALGOL.[26] 

FLOATING POINT ALGOL TEST'
BEGIN REAL A,B,C,D'
READ D'
FOR A:= 0.0 STEP D UNTIL 6.3 DO
BEGIN
PRINTPUNCH(3),££L??'
B:= SIN(A)'
C:= COS(A)'
PRINT PUNCH(3),SAMELINE,ALIGNED(1,6),A,B,C'
END
END'

ALGOL 68

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The following code samples are ALGOL 68 versions of the above ALGOL 60 code samples.

ALGOL 68 implementations used ALGOL 60's approaches tostropping.In ALGOL 68's case tokens with the bold typeface are reserved words, types (modes) or operators. 

procabs max = ([,]reala,refrealy,refinti, k)real:
commentThe absolute greatest element of the matrix a, of size ⌈a by 2⌈a
is transferred to y, and the subscripts of this element to i and k;comment
begin
realy:= 0; i:= ⌊a; k:= 2⌊a;
forpfrom⌊ato⌈ado
forqfrom2⌊ato2⌈ado
ifabsa[p, q] > ythen
y:=absa[p, q];
i:= p; k:= q
fi
od
od;
y
end# abs max #

Note: lower (⌊) and upper (⌈) bounds of an array, and array slicing, are directly available to the programmer. 

floating point algol68 test:
(
reala,b,c,d;

#printf– sends output to thefilestand out.#
#printf($p$);– selects anew page#
printf(($pg$, "Enter d:" ));
read(d);

forstepfrom0whilea:=step*d; a <= 2*pido
printf($l$); #$l$- selects anew line.#
b:= sin(a);
c:= cos(a);
printf(($z-d.6d$,a,b,c)) # formats output with 1 digit before and 6 after the decimal point. #
od
)

Timeline: Hello world

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The variations and lack of portability of the programs from one implementation to another is easily demonstrated by the classichello world program.[citation needed]

ALGOL 58 (IAL)

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Main article:ALGOL 58

ALGOL 58 had no I/O facilities.

ALGOL 60 family

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Main article:ALGOL 60

Since ALGOL 60 had no I/O facilities, there is no portablehello world programin ALGOL. The next three examples are in Burroughs Extended Algol. The first two direct output at the interactive terminal they are run on. The first uses a character array, similar to C. The language allows the array identifier to be used as a pointer to the array, and hence in a REPLACE statement. 

BEGIN
FILEF(KIND=REMOTE);
EBCDICARRAYE[0:11];
REPLACEEBY"HELLO WORLD!";
WRITE(F,*,E);
END.

A simpler program using an inline format: 

BEGIN
FILEF(KIND=REMOTE);
WRITE(F,<"HELLO WORLD!">);
END.

An even simpler program using the Display statement. Note that its output would end up at the system console ('SPO'): 

BEGINDISPLAY("HELLO WORLD!")END.

An alternative example, using Elliott Algol I/O is as follows. Elliott Algol used different characters for "open-string-quote" and "close-string-quote", represented here by‘and’. 

programHiFolks;
begin
print‘Helloworld’
end;

Below is a version from Elliott 803 Algol (A104). The standard Elliott 803 used five-hole paper tape and thus only had upper case. The code lacked any quote characters so £ (UK Pound Sign) was used for open quote and? (Question Mark) for close quote. Special sequences were placed in double quotes (e.g. ££L?? produced a new line on the teleprinter). 

HIFOLKS'
BEGIN
PRINT £HELLO WORLD£L??'
END'

TheICT 1900 seriesAlgol I/O version allowed input from paper tape or punched card. Paper tape 'full' mode allowed lower case. Output was to a line printer. The open and close quote characters were represented using '(' and ')' and spaces by %.[27] 

'BEGIN'
WRITE TEXT('('HELLO%WORLD')');
'END'

ALGOL 68

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Main article:ALGOL 68

ALGOL 68code was published with reserved words typically in lowercase, but bolded or underlined. 

begin
printf(($gl$, "Hello, world!" ))
end

In the language of the "Algol 68 Report" theinput/outputfacilities were collectively called the "Transput".

Timeline of ALGOL special characters

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This article contains Unicode 6.0 "Miscellaneous Technical"characters.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead of something like "₁₀" (Decimal Exponent Symbol U+23E8 TTF).

The ALGOLs were conceived at a time when character sets were diverse and evolving rapidly; also, the ALGOLs were defined so that onlyuppercaseletters were required.

1960:IFIP– The Algol 60 language and report included several mathematical symbols which are available on modern computers and operating systems, but, unfortunately, were unsupported on most computing systems at the time. For instance: ×, ÷, ≤, ≥, ≠, ¬, ∨, ∧, ⊂, ≡, ␣ and ⏨.

1961 September: ASCII – TheASCIIcharacter set, then in an early stage of development, had the\(Back slash) character added to it in order to support ALGOL'sBooleanoperators/\and\/.[28]

1962:ALCOR– This character set included the unusual "᛭" runic cross[29]character for multiplication and the "⏨" Decimal Exponent Symbol[30]for floating point notation.[31][32][33]

1964:GOST– The 1964 Soviet standardGOST 10859allowed the encoding of 4-bit, 5-bit, 6-bit and 7-bit characters in ALGOL.[34]

1968: The "Algol 68 Report" – used extant ALGOL characters, and further adopted →, ↓, ↑, □, ⌊, ⌈, ⎩, ⎧, ○, ⊥, and ¢ characters which can be found on theIBM 2741keyboard withtypeball(orgolf ball)print headsinserted (such as theAPL golf ball). These became available in the mid-1960s while ALGOL 68 was being drafted. The report was translated into Russian, German, French, and Bulgarian, and allowed programming in languages with larger character sets, e.g.,Cyrillicalphabet of the SovietBESM-4. All ALGOL's characters are also part of theUnicodestandard and most of them are available in several popularfonts.

2009 October:Unicode– The⏨(Decimal Exponent Symbol) for floating point notation was added to Unicode 5.2 for backward compatibility with historicBuran programmeALGOL software.[35]

Legacy

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A significant contribution of the ALGOL 58 Report was to provide standard terms for programming concepts: statement, declaration, type, label, primary, block, and others.[10]

See also

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References

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  1. ^The name of this language family is sometimes given in mixed case (Algol 60Archived25 June 2007 at theWayback Machine), and sometimes in all uppercase (ALGOL68Archived13 September 2014 at theWayback Machine). For simplicity this article usesALGOL.
  2. ^Collected Algorithms of the ACMArchived17 October 2011 at Wikiwix Compressed archives of the algorithms.ACM.
  3. ^O'Hearn, P. W.; Tennent, R. D. (September 1996)."Algol-like languages, Introduction".Archived fromthe originalon 14 November 2011.
  4. ^"The ALGOL Programming Language"Archived6 October 2016 at theWayback Machine,University of Michigan-Dearborn
  5. ^abcBackus, John Warner;Bauer, Friedrich Ludwig;Green, Julien;Katz, Charles;McCarthy, John;Naur, Peter;Perlis, Alan Jay;Rutishauser, Heinz;Samelson, Klaus;Vauquois, Bernard;Wegstein, Joseph Henry;van Wijngaarden, Adriaan;Woodger, Michael(May 1960).Naur, Peter(ed.)."Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 60".Communications of the ACM.3(5). Copenhagen, Denmark: 299–314.doi:10.1145/367236.367262.ISSN0001-0782.S2CID278290.
  6. ^"Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60".1963.Archivedfrom the original on 25 June 2007.Retrieved8 June2007.
  7. ^"An ALGOL 60 Translator for the X1"(PDF).1961.Archived(PDF)from the original on 9 October 2022.Retrieved7 January2021.
  8. ^"Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language ALGOL 68"(PDF).1973.Archived(PDF)from the original on 13 September 2014.Retrieved13 September2014.
  9. ^"History of ALGOL — Software Preservation Group".www.softwarepreservation.org.Retrieved14 March2024.
  10. ^abcBemer, Bob."A Politico-Social History of Algol"(PDF).Computer History Museum.Retrieved9 August2024.
  11. ^Knuth, Donald E. (1964)."Backus Normal Form vs Backus Naur Form".Communications of the ACM.7(12): 735–736.doi:10.1145/355588.365140.S2CID47537431.
  12. ^ACM Award Citation: Peter NaurArchived2 April 2012 atArchive-It,2005
  13. ^Perlis, Alan J (1978)."The American side of the development of ALGOL".https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery:75–91.doi:10.1145/800025.1198352.ISBN0-12-745040-8– viahttps://dl.acm.org/.{{cite journal}}:External link in|journal=and|via=(help)
  14. ^"Hints on Programming Language Design"Archived15 September 2009 at theWayback Machine,C.A.R. Hoare, December 1973. Page 27. (This statement is sometimes erroneously attributed toEdsger W. Dijkstra,also involved in implementing the first ALGOL 60compiler.)
  15. ^Dybvig, R. K.; et al. Rees, Jonathan; Clinger, William;Abelson, Hal(eds.)."Revised(3) Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme, (Dedicated to the Memory of ALGOL 60)".Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2010.Retrieved20 October2009.
  16. ^"The Encyclopedia of Computer Languages".Archived fromthe originalon 27 September 2011.Retrieved20 January2012.
  17. ^Computer Museum HistoryArchived20 August 2010 at theWayback Machine,Historical Zuse-Computer Z23, restored by the Konrad Zuse Schule in Hünfeld, for the Computer Museum History Center in Mountain View (California) US
  18. ^Daylight, E. G. (2011)."Dijkstra's Rallying Cry for Generalization: the Advent of the Recursive Procedure, late 1950s – early 1960s".The Computer Journal.54(11): 1756–1772.CiteSeerX10.1.1.366.3916.doi:10.1093/comjnl/bxr002.Archivedfrom the original on 12 March 2013.
  19. ^Kruseman Aretz, F.E.J. (30 June 2003). "The Dijkstra-Zonneveld ALGOL 60 Compiler for the Electrologica X1".Software Engineering(PDF).History of Computer Science. Amsterdam: Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica.Archived(PDF)from the original on 4 March 2016.
  20. ^Hoare, Antony (1980)."The Emperor's Old Clothes".Communications of the ACM.24(2): 75–83.doi:10.1145/358549.358561.
  21. ^Koffman, Eliot."All I Really Need to Know I Learned in CS1"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 12 October 2012.Retrieved20 May2012.
  22. ^"GOGOL – PDP-1 Algol 60 (Computer Language)".Online Historical Encyclopaedia of Programming Languages.Archivedfrom the original on 2 February 2018.Retrieved1 February2018.
  23. ^Mounier-Kuhn, Pierre (2014)."Algol in France: From Universal Project to Embedded Culture".IEEE Annals of the History of Computing.36(4): 6–25.doi:10.1109/MAHC.2014.50.ISSN1058-6180.S2CID16684090.
  24. ^Wippermann, Hans-Wilm (1968) [1967-06-15, 1966]. "Definition von Schrankenzahlen in Triplex-ALGOL".Computing(in German).3(2). Karlsruhe, Germany: Springer: 99–109.doi:10.1007/BF02277452.ISSN0010-485X.S2CID36685400.
  25. ^Aho, Alfred V.;Sethi, Ravi;Ullman, Jeffrey D.(1986).Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools(1st ed.). Addison-Wesley.ISBN0-201-10194-7.,Section 7.5, and references therein
  26. ^"803 ALGOL"Archived29 May 2010 at theWayback Machine,the manual for Elliott 803 ALGOL
  27. ^"ICL 1900 series: Algol Language".ICL Technical Publication 3340. 1965.
  28. ^How ASCII Got Its BackslashArchived11 July 2014 at theWayback Machine,Bob Bemer
  29. ^iron/runic cross
  30. ^Decimal Exponent Symbol
  31. ^Baumann, R. (October 1961). "ALGOL Manual of the ALCOR Group, Part 1" [ALGOL Manual of the ALCOR Group].Elektronische Rechenanlagen(in German): 206–212.
  32. ^Baumann, R. (December 1961). "ALGOL Manual of the ALCOR Group, Part 2" [ALGOL Manual of the ALCOR Group].Elektronische Rechenanlagen(in German).6:259–265.
  33. ^Baumann, R. (April 1962). "ALGOL Manual of the ALCOR Group, Part 3" [ALGOL Manual of the ALCOR Group].Elektronische Rechenanlagen(in German).2.
  34. ^"GOST 10859 standard".Archived fromthe originalon 16 June 2007.Retrieved5 June2007.
  35. ^Broukhis, Leonid (22 January 2008)."Revised proposal to encode the decimal exponent symbol"(PDF).www.unicode.org.ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 2.Archived(PDF)from the original on 31 July 2015.Retrieved24 January2016.This means that the need to transcode GOST-based software and documentation can still arise: legacy numerical algorithms (some of which may be of interest, e.g. for the automatic landing of the Buran shuttle...) optimized for the non-IEEE floating point representation of BESM-6 cannot be simply recompiled and be expected to work reliably, and some human intervention may be necessary.

Further reading

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