Adriatic Sea

"Adriatic" redirects here. For other uses, seeAdriatic (disambiguation).

TheAdriatic Sea(/ˌeɪdriˈætɪk/) is a body of water separating theItalian Peninsulafrom theBalkan Peninsula.The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of theMediterranean Sea,extending from theStrait of Otranto(where it connects to theIonian Sea) to the northwest and thePo Valley.The countries with coasts on the Adriatic areAlbania,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Croatia,Italy,Montenegro,andSlovenia.

Adriatic Sea
A map of the Adriatic Sea
Location	Southern Europe
Coordinates	43°N15°E
Type	Sea
Etymology	From the ancient city ofAdria
Primary inflows	Adige,Buna,Drin,Krka,Neretva,Po,Soča
Primary outflows	Ionian Sea
Catchment area	235,000 km2(91,000 sq mi)
Basincountries	Bordering:Italy,Albania,Croatia,Montenegro,Slovenia,andBosnia and Herzegovina Not bordering:Greece,Serbia,North Macedonia,Kosovo,Austria,SwitzerlandandFrance(drainage basinsfor inflow rivers)
Max. length	800 km (500 mi)
Max. width	200 km (120 mi)
Surface area	138,600 km2(53,500 sq mi)
Average depth	252.5 m (828 ft)
Max. depth	1,233 m (4,045 ft)
Water volume	35,000 km3(2.8×1010acre⋅ft)
Residence time	3.4±0.4 years
Salinity	38–39PSU
Shore length1	3,739.1 km (2,323.4 mi)
Max. temperature	28 °C (82 °F)
Min. temperature	9 °C (48 °F)
Islands	Over 1300
Settlements	Ancona,Bari,Durrës,Dubrovnik,Koper,Neum,Pescara,Rijeka,Rimini,Šibenik,Split,Trieste,Venice,Vlorë,Zadar
1Shore length isnot a well-defined measure.

The Adriatic contains more than 1,300 islands, mostly located along the Croatian part of its eastern coast. It is divided into three basins, the northern being the shallowest and the southern being the deepest, with a maximum depth of 1,233 metres (4,045 ft). The Otranto Sill, an underwater ridge, is located at the border between the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The prevailing currents flow counterclockwise from theStrait of Otranto,along the eastern coast and back to the strait along the western (Italian) coast. Tidal movements in the Adriatic are slight, althoughlarger amplitudesare known to occur occasionally. The Adriatic'ssalinityis lower than the Mediterranean's because the Adriatic collects a third of the fresh water flowing into the Mediterranean, acting as adilution basin.The surface water temperatures generally range from 30 °C (86 °F) in summer to 12 °C (54 °F) in winter, significantly moderating theAdriatic Basin's climate.

The Adriatic Sea sits on theApulian or Adriatic Microplate,which separated from theAfrican Platein theMesozoicera.The plate's movement contributed to theformation of the surrounding mountain chainsandApennine tectonic upliftafter itscollisionwith theEurasian plate.In theLate Oligocene,theItalian Peninsulafirst formed, separating the Adriatic Basin from the rest of the Mediterranean. All types of sediment are found in the Adriatic, with the bulk of the material transported by the Po and other rivers on the western coast. The western coast isalluvialorterraced,while the eastern coast is highly indented with pronouncedkarstification.There are dozens ofmarine protected areasin the Adriatic, designed to protect the sea's karsthabitatsandbiodiversity.The sea is abundant in flora and fauna—more than 7,000 species are identified as native to the Adriatic, many of themendemic,rare and threatened ones.

The Adriatic's shores are populated by more than 3.5 million people; the largest cities areBari,Venice,TriesteandSplit.The earliest settlements on the Adriatic shores wereEtruscan,Illyrian,andGreek.By the 2nd century BC, the region was underRome's control. In theMiddle Ages,the Adriatic shores and the sea itself were controlled, to a varying extent, by a series of states—most notably theByzantine Empire,theCroatian Kingdom,theRepublic of Venice,theHabsburg monarchyand theOttoman Empire.TheNapoleonic Warsresulted in theFirst French Empiregaining coastal control and theBritish effortto counter the French in the area, ultimately securing most of the eastern Adriatic shore and the Po Valley forAustria.FollowingItalian unification,theKingdom of Italystarted an eastward expansion that lasted until the 20th century. FollowingWorld War Iand the collapse ofAustria-Hungaryand the Ottoman Empire, the entire eastern coast's control passed toYugoslaviaand Albania, except forTriesteand surrounding area which remained under Italian control. The formerdisintegratedduring the 1990s, resulting in four new states on the Adriatic coast. Italy and Yugoslavia agreed on their maritime boundaries by 1975 and this boundary is recognised by Yugoslavia's successor states, but the maritime boundaries between Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro are still disputed. Italy and Albania agreed on their maritime boundary in 1992.

Fisheriesandtourismare significant sources of income all along the Adriatic coast.Adriatic Croatia's tourism industry has grown faster economically than the rest of theAdriatic Basin's.Maritime transportis also a significant branch of the area's economy—there are 19 seaports in the Adriatic that each handle more than a milliontonnesof cargo per year. The largest Adriatic seaport by annual cargo turnover is thePort of Trieste,while thePort of Splitis the largest Adriatic seaport by passengers served per year.

Name

Theoriginsof the nameAdriaticare linked to theIllyriansettlement ofAdria,which probably derives its name fromIllyrianadur'water, sea'.Inclassical antiquity,the sea was known asMare Adriaticum(Mare Hadriaticum,also sometimes simplified toAdria) or, less frequently, asMare Superum'[the] upper sea'.The two terms were not synonymous, however.Mare Adriaticumgenerally corresponds to the Adriatic Sea's extent, spanning from theGulf of Veniceto the Strait of Otranto. That boundary became more consistently defined by Roman authors—early Greek sources place the boundary between the Adriatic and Ionian seas at various places ranging from adjacent to theGulf of Veniceto the southern tip of thePeloponnese,eastern shores ofSicilyand western shores ofCrete.Mare Superumon the other hand normally encompassed both the modern Adriatic Sea and the sea off the Apennine peninsula's southern coast, as far as theStrait of Sicily.Another name used in the period wasMare Dalmaticum,applied to waters off the coast ofDalmatiaorIllyricum.During theearly modern period,the entire sea was also known as theGulf of Venice(Italian:golfo di Venezia),althoughthat nameis now informally applied only to the northern area of the sea, from Maestra Point in thePoDeltato Cape Kamenjak on theIstrian Peninsula.

The names for the sea in the languages of the surrounding countries includeAlbanian:Deti Adriatik;Emilian:Mèr Adriatic;Friulian:Mâr Adriatic;Greek:Αδριατική θάλασσα,romanized:Adriatikí thálassa;Istro Romanian:Marea Adriatică;Italian:Mare Adriatico;Serbo-Croatian:Jadransko more,Јадранско море;Slovene:Jadransko morje;Venetian:Mar Adriàtico.In Serbo-Croatian and Slovene, the sea is often referred to as simplyJadran.

Geography

The Adriatic Sea is a semi-enclosed sea,bordered in the southwest by theApennine or Italian Peninsula,in the northwest by the Italian regions ofVenetoandFriuli-Venezia Giulia,and in the northeast bySlovenia,Croatia,Bosnia and Herzegovina,Montenegro,andAlbania—theBalkan peninsula.In the southeast, the Adriatic Sea connects to theIonian Seaat the 72-kilometre (45 mi) wideStrait of Otranto.TheInternational Hydrographic Organization(IHO) defines the boundary between the Adriatic and the Ionian seas as a line running from theButrinto River's mouth (latitude39°44'N) in Albania to the Karagol Cape inCorfu,through this island to the Kephali Cape (these two capes are in latitude 39°45'N), and on to theSanta Maria di Leuca Cape(latitude 39°48'N).It extends 800 kilometres (500 mi) from the northwest to the southeast and is 200 kilometres (120 mi) wide. It covers 138,600 square kilometres (53,500 sq mi) and has a volume of 35,000 cubic kilometres (8,400 cu mi). The Adriatic extends northwest from40°to45°47' north, representing theMediterranean's northernmost portion.The sea is geographically divided into the Northern Adriatic, Central (or Middle) Adriatic, and Southern Adriatic.

The Adriatic Seadrainage basinencompasses 235,000 square kilometres (91,000 sq mi), yielding a land–sea ratio of 1.8. The drainage basin's mean elevation is 782 metres (2,566 ft) above sea level, with a mean slope of 12.1°.Major rivers discharging into the Adriatic include the Po,Soča,Krka,Neretva,Drin,Buna,andVjosë.In the late 19th century,Austria-Hungaryestablished ageodeticnetwork with anelevation benchmarkusing the average Adriatic Sea level at the Sartorio pier inTrieste,Italy.The benchmark was subsequently retained byAustria,adopted byYugoslavia,and retained by the states that emerged afterits dissolution.In 2016, Slovenia adopted a new elevation benchmark referring to the upgradedtide gaugestation in the coastal town ofKoper.

The Alps, which also have a large meteorological impact on the Mediterranean, touch the Adriatic in the area around Trieste towardsDuinoandBarcola.

Bay of Kotor,ariain the Southern Adriatic

Gjipe Canyonin southern Albania, where the Adriatic Sea meets the Ionian Sea

Length in kilometres of Adriatic coastlines

Country	Mainland	Islands	Total	Coastal fronta
Croatia	1,777.3	4,058	5,835.3	526
Italy	1,249	23b	1,272	926
Albania	396	10	406	265
Montenegro	249	11	260	92
Slovenia	46.6	0	46.6	17
Bosnia and Herzegovina	21.2	0	21.2	10.5
Total	3,739.1	4,102	7,841.1	1,836.5
Notes:aThe distance between the extreme points of each state's coastline,bNot including islands in coastal lagoons
1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi

The Adriatic Sea containsmore than 1,300 islands and islets,most along the Adriatic's eastern coast—especially in Croatia, with 1,246 counted.The number includes islands, islets, and rocks of all sizes, including ones emerging atebb tideonly.The Croatian islands include the largest—CresandKrk,each covering about the same area of 405.78 square kilometres (156.67 sq mi)—and the tallest—Brač,whose peak reaches 780 metres (2,560 ft) above sea level. The islands of Cres and the adjacentLošinjare separated only by a narrow navigable canal dug in the time ofclassical antiquity;the original single island was known to the Greeks asApsyrtides.The Croatian islands include 47permanently inhabited ones,the most populous among them being Krk,Korčulaand Brač.The islands along the Adriatic's western (Italian) coast are smaller and less numerous than those along the opposite coast; the best-known ones are the 117 islands on which the city ofVeniceis built.The northern shore of the Greek island ofCorfualso lies in the Adriatic Sea as defined by the IHO.The IHO boundary places theDiapontia Islands(northwest of Corfu) in the Adriatic Sea.

Adriatic islands offCroatia's coast

Exclusive economic zone

Exclusive economic zonesin Adriatic Sea:

Number	Country	Area (Km2)
1	Italy	63,600
2	Croatia	55,961
3	Albania	11,105
4	Montenegro	7,460
5	Slovenia	192
6	Bosnia and Herzegovina	50
Total	Adriatic Sea	138,600

Bathymetry

Depth of the Adriatic Sea

The Adriatic Sea's average depth is 259.5 metres (851 ft), and its maximum depth is 1,233 metres (4,045 ft); however, the North Adriatic basin rarely exceeds a depth of 100 metres (330 ft).The North Adriatic basin, extending between Venice and Trieste towards a line connectingAnconaandZadar,is only 15 metres (49 ft) deep at its northwestern end; it gradually deepens towards the southeast. It is the largest Mediterraneanshelfand is simultaneously adilution basinand a site of bottom water formation.The Middle Adriatic basin is south of the Ancona–Zadar line, with the 270-metre (890 ft) deep Middle Adriatic Pit (also called the Pomo Depression or the Jabuka Pit). The 170-metre (560 ft) deep Palagruža Sill is south of the Middle Adriatic Pit, separating it from the 1,200-metre (3,900 ft) deep South Adriatic Pit and the Middle Adriatic basin from the South Adriatic Basin. Further on to the south, the sea floor rises to 780 metres (2,560 ft) to form the Otranto Sill at the boundary to the Ionian Sea. The South Adriatic Basin is similar in many respects to the Northern Ionian Sea, to which it is connected.Transversely, the Adriatic Sea is also asymmetric: the Apennine peninsular coast is relatively smooth with very few islands and theMount ConeroandGarganopromontories as the only significant protrusions into the sea; in contrast, the Balkan peninsular coast is rugged with numerous islands, especially in Croatia. The coast's ruggedness is exacerbated by theDinaric Alps' proximity to the coast, in contrast to the opposite (Italian) coast where theApennine Mountainsare further away from the shoreline.

Hydrology

Schematic layout of Adriatic Sea currents

surface currents

benthic currents

The coastal water dynamics are determined by the asymmetric coasts and the inflow of the Mediterranean seawater through the Straits of Otranto and further on along the eastern coast.The smooth Italian coast (with very few protrusions and no major islands) allows the Western Adriatic Current to flow smoothly, which is composed of the relatively freshwater mass on the surface and the cold and dense water mass at the bottom.The coastal currents on the opposite shore are far more complex owing to the jagged shoreline, several large islands and the proximity of the Dinaric Alps to the shore. The last produces significant temperature variations between the sea and the hinterland, which leads to the creation of local jets.The tidal movement is normally slight, usually remaining below 30 centimetres (12 in). Theamphidromic pointis at the mid-width east of Ancona.

The normal tide levels are known to increase significantly in a conducive environment, leading tocoastal flooding;this phenomenon is most famously known in Italy—especially Venice—asacqua alta.Such tides can exceed normal levels by more than 140 centimetres (55 in),with the highest tide level of 194 centimetres (76 in) observed on 4 November 1966.Such flooding is caused by a combination of factors, including the alignment of theSunandMoon,meteorological factors such assiroccorelated storm surges,and the basin's geometric shape (which amplifies or reduces the astronomical component). Moreover, the Adriatic's long and narrow rectangular shape is the source of an oscillating water motion (French:seiche) along the basin's minor axis.Finally, Venice is increasingly vulnerable to flooding due to coastal area soilsubsidence.Such unusually high tides resulting in flooding have also been observed elsewhere in the Adriatic Sea, and have been recorded in recent years in the towns ofKoper,Zadar andŠibenikas well.

Asubmarine springnearOmiš,observed through sea surface rippling

It is estimated that the Adriatic's entire volume is exchanged through the Strait of Otranto in 3.4±0.4 years, a comparatively short period. (For instance, approximately 500 years are necessary to exchange all theBlack Sea's water.) This short period is particularly important as the rivers flowing into the Adriaticdischargeup to 5,700 cubic metres per second (200,000 cu ft/s). This rate of discharge amounts to 0.5% of the total Adriatic Sea volume, or a 1.3-metre (4 ft 3 in) layer of water each year. The greatest portion of the discharge from any single river comes from thePo(28%),with an average discharge from it alone of 1,569 cubic metres per second (55,400 cu ft/s).In terms of the annual total discharge into the entire Mediterranean Sea, the Po is ranked second, followed by the Neretva andDrin,which rank as third and fourth.Another significant contributor of freshwater to the Adriatic is thesubmarine groundwater dischargethrough submarine springs (Croatian:vrulja); it is estimated to comprise 29% of the total water flux into the Adriatic.The submarine springs includethermal springs,discovered offshore near the town ofIzola.The thermal spring water is rich withhydrogen sulfide,has a temperature of 22 to 29.6 °C (71.6 to 85.3 °F), and has enabled the development of specific ecosystems.The inflow of freshwater, representing a third of the freshwater volume flowing into the Mediterranean,makes the Adriatic adilution basinfor the Mediterranean Sea.The Middle andSouth Adriatic Gyres(SAG), are significantcyclonic circulationfeatures, with the former being intermittent and the latter permanent. The SAG measures 150 kilometres (93 miles) in diameter. It contributes to the flow ofbottom waterfrom the Adriatic to theLevantine Basinthrough the Ionian Sea. Through that process, the Adriatic Sea produces most of the East Mediterranean deep water.

Temperature and salinity

The Adriatic's surface temperature usually ranges from 22 to 30 °C (72 to 86 °F) in the summer, or 12 to 14 °C (54 to 57 °F) in the winter, except along the western Adriatic coast's northern part, where it drops to 9 °C (48 °F) in the winter. The distinct seasonal temperature variations, with a longitudinal gradient in the Northern and transversal gradient in the Middle and Southern Adriatic,are attributed to the continental characteristics of the Adriatic Sea: it is shallower and closer to land than are oceans.During particularly cold winters,sea icemay appear in the Adriatic's shallow coastal areas, especially in theVenetian Lagoonbut also in isolated shallows as far south asTisno(south of Zadar).The Southern Adriatic is about 8 to 10 °C (14 to 18 °F) warmer during the winter than the more northerly regions.The Adriatic'ssalinityvariation over the year is likewise distinct:it ranges between 38 and 39PSUs.The southern Adriatic is subjected to saltier water from the Levantine Basin.

Climate

As seen from the map, most of the landmass surrounding the Adriatic sea is classified asCfa,with the southern region (near theIonian Sea) beingCsa.

According to theKöppen climate classification,the upper half of the Adriatic is classified ashumid subtropical climate(Cfa), with wetter summers and colder and drier winters, and the southern Adriatic are classified ashot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa).The air temperature can fluctuate by about 20 °C (36 °F) during a season.

The predominant winter winds are theboraandsirocco(calledjugoalong the eastern coast). The bora is significantly conditioned by wind gaps in the Dinaric Alps bringing cold and dry continental air; it reaches peak speeds in the areas of Trieste,Senj,andSplit,with gusts of up to 180 kilometres per hour (97 kn; 110 mph). The sirocco brings humid and warm air, often carryingSaharansand causingrain dust.

Climate characteristics of some major Adriatic cities

City	Mean temperature (daily high)				Mean total rainfall
	January		July		January			July
	°C	°F	°C	°F	mm	in	days	mm	in	days
Bari	12.1	53.8	28.4	83.1	50.8	2.00	7.3	27.0	1.06	2.6
Dubrovnik	12.2	54.0	28.3	82.9	95.2	3.75	11.2	24.1	0.95	4.4
Rijeka	8.7	47.7	27.7	81.9	134.9	5.31	11.0	82.0	3.23	9.1
Split	10.2	50.4	29.8	85.6	77.9	3.07	11.1	27.6	1.09	5.6
Venice	5.8	42.4	27.5	81.5	58.1	2.29	6.7	63.1	2.48	5.7
Source:World Meteorological Organization

Population

Most populous urban areas on the Adriatic coast

Bari Venice	Rank	City	Country	Region/County	Population (urban)	Trieste Durrës
	1	Bari	Italy	Apulia	320,475
	2	Venice	Italy	Veneto	270,884
	3	Trieste	Italy	Friuli-Venezia Giulia	205,535
	4	Durrës	Albania	Durrës	199,073
	5	Split	Croatia	Split-Dalmatia	178,102
	6	Rimini	Italy	Emilia-Romagna	150,009
	7	Rijeka	Croatia	Primorje-Gorski Kotar	128,384
	8	Pescara	Italy	Abruzzo	123,103
	9	Vlorë	Albania	Vlorë	117,850
	10	Ancona	Italy	the Marches	101,210
	Sources: 2011 Croatian census,Italian National Institute of Statistics (2011),2011 Albanian Census

On the Adriatic Sea's coasts and islands, there are numerous small settlements and a number of larger cities. Among the largest are (counterclockwise) Trieste, Venice, Rimini, Ancona, Pescara and Bari in Italy; Vlorë and Durrës in Albania; Split, Zadar and Rijeka in Croatia; Koper in Slovenia. In total, more than 3.5 million people live on the Adriatic coasts.There are also some larger cities that are located very near the coast, such as the Italian cities ofRavennaandLecce.

Coastal management

MOSE Project north ofLido di Venezia

Venice,which was originally built on islands off the coast, is most at risk due to subsidence, but the threat is present in the Podeltaas well. The causes are a decrease insedimentationrate due to loss of sediment behind dams, the deliberate excavation of sand for industrial purposes, agricultural use of water, and removal of ground water.

The sinking of Venice slowed afterartesian wellswere banned in the 1960s, but the city remains threatened by theacqua altafloods. Recent studies have suggested that the city is no longer sinking,but a state of alert remains in place. In May 2003, then-Prime MinisterSilvio Berlusconiinaugurated theMOSE project(Italian:Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico), an experimental model for evaluating the performance of inflatable gates. The project proposes laying a series of 79 inflatablepontoonsacross the sea bed at the three entrances to theVenetian Lagoon.When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres (43 in), the pontoons will be filled with air and block the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea. This engineering work was due to be completed by 2014,but as of November 2020 is expected to be completed in 2021. Implemented for the first time on October 3, 2020,the barriers are made to seal off three inlets that lead to the Venetian Lagoon and counteract floods of up to ten feet; in addition to protecting the city from flooding, the barrier system is also intended to stabilize Venice's water levels so as to minimize erosion of the brick walls and, subsequently, the foundations of various buildings in the city. However, concern has been raised regarding the frequency of its use—while only necessary a few days a year, the worst-case sea level rise scenario between 2050 and 2100 would prompt deployment up to 187 days a year, essentially cutting off the Venetian Lagoon from the Adriatic Sea. Among other possible adverse effects, this can be expected to lower the lagoon's oxygen levels and trap pollution inside of the city.

Geology

Adriatic Microplateboundaries

Geophysical and geological information indicate that the Adriatic Sea and thePo Valleyare associated with atectonicmicroplate—identified as theApulian or Adriatic Plate—that separated from theAfrican Plateduring theMesozoicera.This separation began in theMiddleandLate Triassic,whenlimestonebegan to be deposited in the area. Between theNorianandLate Cretaceous,theAdriaticandApulia Carbonate Platformsformed as a thick series of carbonate sediments (dolomitesand limestones), up to 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) deep.Remnants of the former are found in the Adriatic Sea, as well as in the southernAlpsand theDinaric Alps,and remnants of the latter are seen as theGargano Promontoryand theMaiellamountain. In theEoceneand earlyOligocene,the plate moved north and north-east, contributing to theAlpine orogeny(along with theAfricanandEurasian Plates' movements) via thetectonic upliftof the Dinarides and Alps. In theLate Oligocene,the motion was reversed and theApennine Mountains' orogenytook place.An unbroken zone of increased seismic activity borders the Adriatic Sea, with a belt ofthrust faultsgenerally oriented in the northeast–southwest direction on the east coast and the northeast–southwest normal faults in the Apennines, indicating an Adriatic counterclockwise rotation.

An active 200-kilometre (120 mi)faulthas been identified to the northwest of Dubrovnik, adding to theDalmatianislands as the Eurasian Plate slides over the Adriatic microplate. Furthermore, the fault causes the Apennine peninsula's southern tip to move towards the opposite shore by about 0.4 centimetres (0.16 in) per year. If this movement continues, the seafloor will be completely consumed and the Adriatic Sea closed off in 50–70 million years.In the Northern Adriatic, the coast of theGulf of Triesteand westernIstriais gradually subsiding, having sunk about 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) in the past two thousand years.In the Middle Adriatic Basin, there is evidence ofPermianvolcanism in the area ofKomižaon the island ofVisand the volcanic islands ofJabukaandBrusnik.Earthquakes have been observed in the region since the earliest historical records.A recent strong earthquake in the region was the1979 Montenegro earthquake,measuring 7.0 on theRichter scale.Historical earthquakesin the area include the 1627 Gargano peninsula and the1667 Dubrovnikearthquakes, both followed by strong tsunamis.In the last 600 years, fifteen tsunamis have occurred in the Adriatic Sea.

Seafloor sediment

Sedimentbillowing out from Italy's shore into the Adriatic

All types ofseafloor sedimentsare found in the Adriatic Sea. The Northern Adriatic's comparatively shallow seabed is characterised by relict sand (from times when the water level was lower and the area was a sandy beach), while a muddy bed is typical at depths below 100 metres (330 ft).There are fivegeomorphologicalunits in the Adriatic: the Northern Adriatic (up to 100 metres (330 ft) deep); the North Adriatic islands area protected against sediments filling it in by outer islands (pre-Holocenekarstrelief); the Middle Adriatic islands area (large Dalmatian islands); the Middle Adriatic (characterized by the Middle Adriatic Depression); and the Southern Adriatic consisting of a coastalshelfand the Southern Adriatic Depression. Sediments deposited in the Adriatic Sea today generally come from the northwest coast, being carried by the Po,Reno,Adige,Brenta,Tagliamento,Piaveand Soča rivers. The volume of sediments carried from the eastern shore by theRječina,Zrmanja,Krka,Cetina,Ombla,Dragonja,Mirna,RašaandNeretvarivers is negligible, because these sediments are mostly deposited at the river mouths. The Adriatic's western shores are largely eitheralluvialorterraced,whereas the eastern shores are predominantly rocky, except for the southernmost part of the shore located in Albania that consists of sandy coves and rocky capes.

Coasts

Pebblebeach atBračisland, in the Adriatic Sea within Croatia

The eastern Adriatic shore's Croatian part is the most indented Mediterranean coastline.Most of the eastern coast is characterised by a karst topography, developed from the Adriatic Carbonate Platform's exposure to weathering. Karstification there largely began after the Dinarides' final uplift in the Oligocene and theMiocene,whencarbonate depositswere exposed to atmospheric effects; this extended to the level of 120 metres (390 ft) below the present sea level, exposed during theLast Glacial Maximum.It is estimated that some karst formations are from earlier sea level drops, most notably theMessinian salinity crisis.Similarly, karst developed inApuliafrom the Apulian Carbonate Platform.

Coast ofMount Coneroin Italy

The largest part of the eastern coast consists of carbonate rocks, whileflysch(a particular type of sedimentary rock) is significantly represented in the Gulf of Trieste coast, especially along Slovenia's coast where the 80-metre (260 ft)Strunjan cliff—the highest cliff on the entire Adriatic and the only one of its type on the eastern Adriatic coast—is located,on theKvarner Gulfcoast opposite Krk, and in Dalmatia north of Split.Rocks of the same type are found in Albania and on the western Adriatic coast.

There are alternations of maritime and alluvialsedimentsoccurring in thePo Valley,at the Adriatic's north-west coast, and as far west asPiacenza,dating to thePleistoceneas the sea advanced and receded over the valley. An advance began after the Last Glacial Maximum, which brought the Adriatic to a high point at about 5,500 years ago.Since then, the Po delta has beenprograding(expanding/extending). The rate of coastal zone progradation between 1000 BC and 1200 AD was 4 metres (13 ft) per year.In the 12th century, the delta advanced at a rate of 25 metres (82 ft) per year. In the 17th century, the delta began to become a human-controlled environment, as the excavation of artificial channels started; the channels and newdistributariesof the Po have been prograding at rates of 50 metres (160 ft) per year or more since then.There are more than 20 other rivers flowing into the Adriatic Sea in Italy alone, also formingalluvialcoastlines,including the lagoons ofVenice,GradoandCaorle.There are smaller eastern Adriatic alluvial coasts—in the deltas of the Dragonja,Bunaand Neretva rivers.

Biogeography and ecology

The Adriatic Sea is a unique water body in respect of its overallbiogeochemicalphysiognomy. It exports inorganic nutrients and imports particulate organic carbon and nitrogen through the Strait of Otranto—acting as a mineralization site. The exchange of the substances is made more complex by bathymetry of the Adriatic Sea—75% of water flowing north through the strait recirculates at the Palagruža Sill and North Adriatic adds no more than 3–4% of water to the South Adriatic.This is reflected in itsbiogeographyandecology,and particularly in the composition and properties of itsecosystems.Its main biogeographic units are the Northern Adriatic, the Central Adriatic, and the Southern Adriatic.

Flora and fauna

The unique nature of the Adriatic gives rise to an abundance ofendemicflora and fauna. The Croatian National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan identified more than 7,000 animal and plant species in the Adriatic Sea. The Central Adriatic is especially abundant in endemic plant species, with 535 identified species ofgreen,brownandred algae.Four out of five Mediterraneanseagrassspecies are found in the Adriatic Sea. The most common species areCymodocea nodosaandZostera noltii,whileZostera marinaandPosidonia oceanicaare comparatively rare.

A number ofrareandthreatened speciesare also found along the Adriatic's eastern coast; it is relatively clearer and less polluted than the western Adriatic coast—in part because the sea currents flow through the Adriatic in a counterclockwise direction, thus bringing clearer waters up the eastern coast and returning increasingly polluted water down the western coast. This circulation has significantly contributed to the biodiversity of the countries along the eastern Adriatic coast; thecommon bottlenose dolphinis frequent in the eastern coast's waters only, and the Croatian coast provides refuge for the critically endangeredmonk sealand sea turtles.Recent studies revealed thatcetaceansand other marinemegafaunas,that were once thought to be vagrants to Adriatic Sea, migrate and live in the semi-closed sea on larger scales.Largest of these live normally is thefin whale,andsperm whale,the largest of toothed whales also migrate but less common than fin whales, followed byCuvier's beaked whales.Basking sharksandmanta raysare some of migrant species to the sea.Historical presences of depleted or extinct species such asNorth Atlantic right whales(extinct or functionally extinct),Atlantic gray whales(extinct), andhumpback whaleshave been speculated as well.

Tuna has been caught by the locals in the upper Adriatic for thousands of years. The very large schools consisted mainly oflittle tunnyand moved as far as theGulf of Trieste.However, increasing fishing prevented the migration of large schools of fish to the north. The last major tuna catch was made there in 1954 by the fishermen from Santa Croce, Contovello andBarcola.

The Northern Adriatic in particular is rich in endemic fish fauna.Around thirty species of fish are found in only one or two countries bordering the Adriatic Sea. These are particularly due to or dependent upon thekarstmorphology of the coastal or submarine topography; this includes inhabiting subterranean habitats, karst rivers, and areas around freshwater springs.There are 45 knownsubspeciesendemic to the Adriatic's coasts and islands. In the Adriatic, there are at least 410 species and subspecies of fish, representing approximately 70% of Mediterranean taxa, with at least 7 species endemic to the Adriatic. Sixty-four known species are threatened with extinction, largely because of overfishing.Only a small fraction of the fish found in the Adriatic are attributed to recent processes such asLessepsian migration,and escape frommariculture.

Protected areas

Tremiti Islandsprotected area

See also:Specially Protected Areas of Mediterranean Importance

The biodiversity of the Adriatic is relatively high, and severalmarine protected areashave been established by countries along its coasts. In Italy, these areMiramarein the Gulf of Trieste (in the Northern Adriatic),Torre del CerranoandTremiti Islandsin the Middle Adriatic basin andTorre Guacetoin southern Apulia.The Miramare protected area was established in 1986 and covers 30 hectares (74 acres) of coast and 90 hectares (220 acres) of sea. The area encompasses 1.8 kilometres (1.1 mi) of coastline near the Miramare promontory in the Gulf of Trieste.The Torre del Cerrano protected area was created in 2009, extending 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi) into the sea and along 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) of coastline. Various zones of the protected area cover 37 square kilometres (14 sq mi) of sea surface.The Tremiti Islands reserve has been protected since 1989, while the Tremiti islands themselves are part of theGargano National Park.The Torre Guaceto protected area, located nearBrindisiandCarovigno,covers a sea surface of 2,227 hectares (5,500 acres) and is adjacent to the Torre Guaceto State Reserve covering 1,114 hectares (2,750 acres) of coast and sharing an 8-kilometre (5.0 mi) coastline with the marine protected area.Furthermore, there are 10internationally important (Ramsar) wetland reservesin Italy located along the Adriatic coast.

KornatiNational Park

There are seven marine protected areas in Croatia:Brijuniand theLim Canaloff the Istria peninsula's coast, nearPulaandRovinjrespectively;KornatiandTelašćicain the Middle Adriatic basin, nearZadar;andLastovo,Bay of Mali Ston(Croatian:Malostonski zaljev) andMljetin southern Dalmatia.The Brijuninational parkencompasses the 743.3-hectare (1,837-acre) archipelago itself and 2,651.7 hectares (6,552 acres) of surrounding sea;it became a national park in 1999.The Lim Canal is a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi)riaof thePazinčicariver.The Kornati national park was established in 1980; it covers approximately 220 square kilometres (85 sq mi), including 89 islands and islets. The marine environment encompasses three-quarters of the total area, while the island shores' combined length equals 238 kilometres (148 mi).Telašćica is a nature park established onDugi Otokin 1988. The park covers 69 kilometres (43 mi) of coastline, 22.95 square kilometres (8.86 sq mi) of land and 44.55 square kilometres (17.20 sq mi) of sea.The Bay of Mali Ston is located at the border of Croatia and Bosnia–Herzegovina, north of thePelješacpeninsula. The marine protected area covers 48 square kilometres (19 sq mi).The Lastovo nature park was established in 2006, and it includes 44 islands and islets, 53 square kilometres (20 sq mi) of land and 143 square kilometres (55 sq mi) of sea surface.The Mljet national park was established in 1960, covering a 24-square-kilometre (9.3 sq mi) marine protection area.In addition, there is a Ramsar wetland reserve in Croatia—theNeretva river's delta.

Karavasta Lagoonin Albania

In Slovenia, the marine and coastal protected nature areas are theSečovlje Salina Landscape Park,Strunjan Landscape Park,Škocjan Inlet Nature Reserve,and theDebeli Rtič,Cape MadonaandLakes in Fiesanatural monuments.The Sečovlje Salina Landscape Park was established in 1990, covers 721 hectares (1,780 acres), and includes fournature reserves.In 1993, the area was designated a Ramsar site;it is also a site of international importance forwaterbirdspecies.The 429-hectare (1,060-acre) Strunjan Landscape Park was established in 2004 and comprises two nature reserves.It includes a 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) long cliff, the northernmost Mediterraneansalt fieldand the only Slovenianlagoonsystem.It is also the northernmost point of growth of some Mediterranean plant species.The Škocjan Inlet Nature Reserve was established in 1998 and covers 122 hectares (300 acres).The Debeli Rtič natural monument covers 24 hectares (59 acres),the Cape Madona natural monument covers 12 hectares (30 acres),and the Lakes in Fiesa natural monument, with the coastal lake as the onlybrackish lakein Slovenia,covers 2.1 hectares (5.2 acres).

In 2010, Albania established its first marine protection area, theKaraburun-Sazan National Marine Parkat theKaraburun Peninsulawhere the Adriatic and Ionian Seas meet. The park covers a total of 12,570 hectares (31,100 acres).Two additional marine protection areas are planned in Albania: theCape of Rodon(Albanian:Kepi i Rodonit) andPorto Palermo.In addition, Albania is home to two Ramsar wetland reserves:Karavasta Lagoon,andButrint.Neither Bosnia–Herzegovina nor Montenegro have or plan to establish any marine protection areas.

Pollution

The Adriatic Sea ecosystem is threatened by excessive input of nutrients through drainage from agricultural land and wastewater flowing from cities; this includes both along its coast and from rivers draining into the sea—especially from thePo River.Venice is often cited as an example of polluted coastal waters where shipping, transportation, farming, manufacturing and wastewater disposal contribute to polluting the sea.A further risk is presented byballast water dischargeby ships, especiallytankers.Still, since most of the cargo handled by the Adriatic ports, and virtually all liquid (tanker) cargo handled by the ports, is coming to—not coming from—the Adriatic Basin, the risk from ballast water (from tankers expelling ballast water then loading in the Adriatic) remains minimal. However, proposed export oil pipelines were objected to specifically because of this issue. Oil spills are a major concern in terms of potential environmental impact and damage to tourism and fisheries.It is estimated that if a major oil spill happened, a million people would lose their livelihoods in Croatia alone.An additional risk is presented by oil refineries in the Po River basin where oil spills have occurred before,in addition to accidents occurring in the Adriatic already, so far with no significant environmental consequences.Since 2006, Italy has been considering the construction of an offshore and an onshoreLNGterminal in theGulf of Trieste,as well as a pipeline, in the immediate vicinity of the Slovenian–Italian border.The Slovenian government and municipalities,the municipal council of Trieste,and non-governmental organisations have voiced concern over their environmental hazards, effect on transport and effect on tourism.

Another source of pollution of the Adriatic is solid waste. Drifting waste—occasionally relatively large quantities of material, especially waste plastic—is transported northwest by the sirocco.Air pollution in theAdriatic Basinis associated with the large industrial centres in the Po River valley and the large industrial cities along the coast.

Italy and Yugoslavia established a joint commission to protect the Adriatic Sea from pollution in 1977; the organization later changed with Slovenia, Croatia and Montenegro replacing Yugoslavia.Future pollution hazards are addressed and pollution hotspots are assessed not only by nations in the basin but also through regional projects withWorld Banksupport. 27 such hotspots have been determined as of 2011, 6 warranting an urgent response.

History

Pula Arena,one of the six largest surviving Roman amphitheatres

Settlements along the Adriatic dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC appear in Albania and Dalmatia on the eastern coast, related to theCardium potteryculture.During classical antiquity,Illyriansinhabited the eastern Adriatic coast,and the western coast was inhabited by thepeoples of Ancient Italy,mainly Etruscans, before theRoman Republic's rise.Greekcolonisation of the Adriatic dates back to the 7th and 6th centuries BC whenEpidamnosandApolloniawere founded. The Greeks soon expanded further north establishing several cities, includingAncona,Black Corcyra,Epidaurus,Issa,with trade established as far north as thePoRiver delta, where theemporion(trading station) ofAdriawas founded.

Roman era

Roman economic and military influence in the region began to grow with the creation by 246 BC of a major naval base at Brundisium (nowBrindisi), which was established to barCarthaginianships from the Adriatic during thePunic Wars.This led to conflict with theIllyrians,who lived in a collection of semi-Hellenizedkingdoms that covered much of the Balkans and controlled the eastern shore of the sea, resulting in theIllyrian Warsfrom 229 to 168 BC. The initial Roman intervention in 229 BC, motivated in part by a desire to suppress Illyrian piracy in the Adriatic, marked the first time that theRoman navycrossed that sea to launch a military campaign.Those wars ended with the eastern shore becoming a province of the Roman Republic.However, resistance to Roman rule continued sporadically and Rome did not completely consolidate control of the region untilAugustus's generalTiberiusput down theGreat Illyrian Revolt,a bitter struggle waged from 6 to 9 AD.Following the repression of the revolt the Roman province ofIllyricumwas split intoDalmatiaandPannonia.Most of the eastern shore of the Adriatic was part of Dalmatia, except for the southernmost portion, part of the province ofMacedonia,and the peninsula ofIstriaon the northern part of the eastern shore; Istria contained the important Roman colony atPulaand was incorporated into the province ofItaly.

During the Roman period, Brundisium, on the western shore, and Apollonia and Dyrrachium (originally called Epidamnos, nowDurrësin Albania) on the eastern shore became important ports. Brundisium was linked by theVia Appiaroad to the city of Rome, and Dyrrachium and Apollonia were both on theVia Egnatia,a road that by about 130 BC the Romans had extended eastward across the Balkans to Byzantium (laterConstantinople,nowIstanbul).This made the sea passage across the Adriatic between Brundisium and Dyrrachium (or Apollonia) a link in the primary route for travelers, trade, and troop movements, between Rome and the East. This route played a major role in some of the military operations that marked the end of the Roman Republic and the start of theimperial period.Sullaused it during theFirst Mithridatic War.DuringCaesar's Civil War,there was a three-month delay inCaesar'sBalkan campaign againstPompeycaused when winter storms on the Adriatic and a naval blockade held upMark Antonyfrom reaching him from Brundisium with reinforcements; after the reinforcements finally arrived Caesar made an unsuccessfulattempt to capture Dyrrachiumbefore the campaign moved inland.Marc Antony and Octavian (later Augustus) crossed the Adriatic to Dyrrachium with their armies in their campaign against two of Caesar's assassins,BrutusandCassius,that culminated in theBattle of Philippi.Brundisium and Dyrrachium remained important ports well after the Roman period, but an earthquake in the 3rd century AD changed the path of a river causing Apollonia's harbor to silt up, and the city to decline.

Another city on the Italian coast of the Adriatic that increased in importance during the Roman era wasRavenna.During the reign of Augustus, it became a major naval base as part of his program to re-organize the Roman navy to better protect commerce in the Mediterranean.During the 4th century AD the emperors of theWestern Roman Empirehad moved their official residence north from Rome toMediolanum(nowMilan) in order to be better able to control the military frontier with the Germanic tribes. In 402 AD, during a period of repeated Germanic invasions of Italy, the capital was shifted to Ravenna because nearby marshes made it more defensible, and the Adriatic provided an easy escape path by sea.When the Western Empire fell in 476 AD Ravenna became the capital of theOstrogothic Kingdomof Italy.

Middle Ages

Mosaic ofEmperor Justinianand his court, from theBasilica of San VitaleinRavenna,Italy

In theEarly Middle Ages,after theRoman Empire's decline,the Adriatic's coasts were ruled byOstrogoths,Lombardsand theByzantine Empire.The Ostrogothic Kingdom ruled Italy following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. However, during the reign ofJustinianthe Byzantine Empire sent an army under the generalBelisariusto regain control of Italy, resulting in theGothic War (535–554).The Byzantines established theExarchate of Ravennaand by 553 AD their viceroy (Exarch) ruled almost the entire Italian peninsula from that city. In 568 AD the Lombards invaded northern Italy, and over the course of the next century or so the importance of the Exarchate declined as the territory under Lombard control expanded and as the Byzantine outpost ofVenicebecame increasingly independent. In 752 AD the Lombards overthrew the Exarchate, ending the influence of the Byzantine Empire on the western shore of the Adriatic for a few centuries.

The last part of the period saw the rise of theCarolingian Empireand then theFrankish Kingdom of Italy,which controlled the Adriatic Sea's western coast,whileByzantine Dalmatiaon the east coast gradually shrunk intoDalmatian city-statesfollowing theAvarandCroatianinvasions starting in the 7th century.TheRepublic of Venice,one of themaritime republics,was founded during this period and went on to become a significant maritime power after receiving a Byzantine tax exemption in 1082.The end of the period brought about theHoly Roman Empire's control over the Kingdom of Italy (which would last until thePeace of Westphaliain 1648),the establishment of an independentKingdom of Croatiaand the Byzantine Empire's return to the southern Apennine peninsula.In addition, thePapal Stateswere carved out in the area aroundRomeand central Italy in the 8th century.

TheRepublic of Venicewas a leading maritime power in Europe.

TheHigh Middle Agesin the Adriatic Sea basin saw further territorial changes, including theNorman conquest of southern Italyending the Byzantine presence on the Apennine peninsula in the 11th and 12th centuries (the territory would become theKingdom of Naplesin 1282)and the control of a substantial part of the eastern Adriatic coast by theKingdom of Hungaryafter apersonal unionwas established between Croatia and Hungary in 1102.In this period, the Republic of Venice began to expand its territory and influence.In 1202, theFourth Crusadewas diverted to conquerZadarat the behest of the Venetians—the first instance of aCrusader forceattacking aCatholiccity—before proceeding to sackConstantinople.In the 13th century, Venice established itself as a leadingmaritime nation.During much of the 12th and 13th centuries, Venice and theRepublic of Genoawereengaged in warfareculminating in theWar of Chioggia,ousting the Genoese from the Adriatic.Still, the 1381 Treaty of Turin that ended the war required Venice to renounce claims to Dalmatia, after losing the territory to Hungary in 1358. In the same year, theRepublic of Ragusawas established in Dubrovnik as a city-state after it was freed from Venetian suzerainty.

Venice regained Dalmatia in 1409 and held it for nearly four hundred years, with the republic's apex of trading and military power in the first half of the 15th century.The 15th and the 16th centuries brought about the Byzantine Empire's destruction in 1453 and theOttoman Empire's expansion that reached Adriatic shores in present-day Albania and Montenegro as well as the immediate hinterland of the Dalmatian coast,defeating the Hungarian and Croatian armies atKrbavain 1493 andMohácsin 1526.These defeats spelled the end of an independent Hungarian kingdom, and bothCroatianandHungariannobility choseFerdinand Iof theHouse of Habsburgas their new ruler, bringing theHabsburg monarchyto the shore of the Adriatic Sea, where it would remain for nearly four hundred years.The Ottomans and Venetians fought aseries of wars,but until the 17th century these were not fought in the Adriatic area.Ottoman raids on the Adriatic coasts effectively ceased after the massive setback in theBattle of Lepantoin October 1571.

Early modern period

Battle of Lissa,1811

The 17th century's final territorial changes were caused by theMorean or Sixth Ottoman–Venetian War,when in 1699 Venice slightly enlarged its possessions in Dalmatia.In 1797, the Republic of Venice was abolished after theFrench conquest.The Venetian territory was then handed over toAustriaand briefly ruled as part of theArchduchy of Austria.The territory was turned back over to France after thePeace of Pressburgin 1805 when the territory in thePo valleybecame an integral part of the newNapoleonic Kingdom of Italy.The new kingdom included the province ofRomagna,thus removing the Papal State from the Adriatic coast;however, Trieste, Istria and Dalmatia were joined into a set of separate provinces of theFrench Empire:theIllyrian Provinces.These were created in 1809 through theTreaty of Schönbrunn;they represented the end of Venetian rule on the eastern Adriatic coast, as well as the end of the Republic of Ragusa.The Adriatic Sea was a minortheatrein the Napoleonic Wars; theAdriatic campaign of 1807–1814involved theBritishRoyal Navy contesting the Adriatic's control by the combined navies of France, Italy and the Kingdom of Naples. During the campaign, theRoyal Navyoccupied Vis and established its base there inPort St. George.The campaign reached its climax in the 1811Battle of Lissa,and ended with British andAustriantroops seizing the coastal cities on the eastern Adriatic coast from the French.Days before the Battle of Waterloo, theCongress of Viennaawarded the Illyrian Provinces (spanning from the Gulf ofTriesteto theBay of Kotor) to Austria.The Congress of Vienna also created theKingdom of Lombardy–Venetiawhich encompassed the city of Venice, the surrounding coast and a substantial hinterland, and was controlled by Austria.In the Apennine peninsula's south, theKingdom of the Two Sicilieswas formed in 1816 by unifying the kingdoms of Naples andSicily.

Modern period

Battle of Lissa,1866

The process ofItalian unificationculminated in theSecond Italian War of Independence,resulting in theKingdom of Sardiniaannexing all territories along the western Adriatic coast south ofVenetiain 1860, and the 1861 establishment of theKingdom of Italyin its place. The Kingdom of Italy expanded in 1866: itannexed Venetia,butits navywas defeated in the Adriatic nearVis.Following theAustro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867and theCroatian–Hungarian Settlementof 1868, the control of much of the eastern Adriatic coast was redefined. Thecisleithanian(Austrian) part of Austria-Hungary spanned from theAustrian Littoralto the Bay of Kotor, with the exception of theCroatian Littoralmainland. In the territory outside the Austrian Littoral,special statuswas given toFiume(modern-dayRijeka) as a separate part of theKingdom of Hungary.The rest of the territory was made a part of theKingdom of Croatia-Slavonia,which in turn was also in theTransleithanianpart of the dual monarchy.The Adriatic coastline controlled by the Ottoman Empire was reduced by theCongress of Berlinin 1878, through recognition of the independence of thePrincipality of Montenegro,which controlled the coast south of the Bay of Kotor to the Bojana River.The Ottoman Empire lost all territories along the Adriatic following theFirst Balkan Warand consequent1913 Treaty of Londonthat established an independent Albania.

The last moments ofSMSSzent István,hit and sank by the ItalianMAS

TheWorld War I Adriatic Campaignwas largely limited to blockade attempts by theAlliesand theeffortof theCentral Powersto thwart the British, French and Italian moves.Italy joined the Allies in April 1915 with theTreaty of London,which promised Italy the Austrian Littoral, northern Dalmatia, theport of Vlorë,most of the eastern Adriatic islands and Albania as aprotectorate.The treaty provided the basis for all the following divisions between Italy and Yugoslavia.In 1918, the Montenegrin national assembly voted to unite with theKingdom of Serbia,giving the latter access to the Adriatic.Another short-lived, unrecognised state established in 1918 was theState of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs,formed from parts of Austria-Hungary, comprising most of the former monarchy's Adriatic coastline. Later that year, the Kingdom of Serbia and the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs formed theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes—subsequently renamed Yugoslavia. The proponents of the new union in theCroatian parliamentsaw the move as a safeguard against Italian expansionism as stipulated in the Treaty of London.The treaty was largely disregarded by Britain andFrancebecause of conflicting promises made to Serbia and a perceived lack of Italian contribution to the war effort outside Italy itself.The 1919Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Layedid transfer the Austrian Littoral and Istria to Italy but awarded Dalmatia to Yugoslavia.Following the war, aprivate forceof demobilized Italian soldiers seized Rijeka and set up theItalian Regency of Carnaro—seen as a harbinger ofFascism—in order to force the recognition of Italian claims to the city.After sixteen months of the Regency's existence, the1920 Treaty of Rapalloredefined the Italian–Yugoslav borders, among other things transferring Zadar and the islands of Cres, Lastovo andPalagružato Italy, securing the island of Krk for Yugoslavia and establishing theFree State of Fiume;this new state was abolished in 1924 by theTreaty of Romethat awarded Fiume (modern Rijeka) to Italy andSušakto Yugoslavia.

Late 20th century

TheDuceBenito Mussoliniin a beach ofRiccione,in 1932

DuringWorld War II,the Adriatic saw onlylimited naval action,starting with theItalian invasion of Albaniaand the jointAxis invasion of Yugoslavia.The latter led to the annexation of a large part of Dalmatia and nearly all the eastern Adriatic islands by Italy and the establishment of twopuppet states,theIndependent State of Croatiaand theKingdom of Montenegro,which controlled the remainder of the former Yugoslav Adriatic coast.In 1947, after theArmistice between Italy and Allied armed forcesand the war's end, Italy (now arepublic) and theAlliessigned theTreaty of Peace with Italy.The treaty reversed all wartime annexations, guaranteed the independence of Albania, created theFree Territory of Trieste(FTT) as a city-state, and gavecommunist Yugoslaviamost of theSlovenian Littoral,as well as Istria, the islands of Cres, Lastovo and Palagruža, and the cities of Zadar and Rijeka.The FTT was partitioned in 1954: Trieste itself and the area to the North of it were placed under Italian control, while the rest came under Yugoslav control. This arrangement was made permanent in the 1975Treaty of Osimo.

During theCold War,the Adriatic Sea became the southernmost flank of theIron Curtainas Italy joinedNATO,while theWarsaw Pactestablished bases in Albania.After thefall of communism,Yugoslavia broke apart:SloveniaandCroatiadeclared independence in 1991,and Bosnia–Herzegovina followed in 1992,while Montenegro remained in a federation with Serbia, officially calledSerbia and Montenegro.The ensuingCroatian War of Independenceincluded limited naval engagements and a blockade of Croatia's coast by theYugoslav Navy,leading to theBattle of the Dalmatian channelsand a later withdrawal of Yugoslav vessels.Montenegro declared itself independent in 2006, effectively land-locking Serbia.The period also saw the Adriatic Sea as the theatre of several NATO operations, including theblockade of Yugoslavia,intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovinaand the1999 bombing of Yugoslavia.

Boundaries

Italy and Yugoslavia defined their Adriatic continental shelf delimitation in 1968,with an additional agreement signed in 1975 on the Gulf of Trieste boundary, following the Treaty of Osimo. The boundary agreed in 1968 extends 353 nautical miles (654 km; 406 mi) and consists of 43 points connected by straight lines or circulararc segments.The additional boundary agreed upon in 1975 consists of 5 points, extending from an end point of the 1968 line. All successor states of former Yugoslavia accepted the agreements. In the Adriatic's southernmost areas the border was not determined in order to avoid prejudicing the location of thetripointwith the Albanian continental shelf border, which remains undefined. Before the breakup of Yugoslavia, Albania, Italy and Yugoslavia initially proclaimed 15-nautical-mile (28 km; 17 mi)territorial waters,subsequently reduced to international-standard 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) and all sides adoptedbaselinesystems (mostly in the 1970s). Albania and Italy determined their sea border in 1992 according to theequidistance principle.FollowingCroatian EU membership,the Adriatic became aninternal seaof the EU.TheUnited Nations Convention on the Law of the Seadefines the Adriatic Sea as an enclosed or semi-enclosed sea.

Adriatic Euroregion

The town ofIzolain theGulf of Koper,southwestern Slovenia

TheAdriatic Euroregionwas established in Pula in 2006 to promote trans-regional and trans-national cooperation in the Adriatic Sea area and serve as an Adriatic framework to help resolve issues of regional importance. The Adriatic Euroregion consists of 23 members: the Apulia,Molise,Abruzzo,the Marches,Emilia-Romagna,Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia regions of Italy; the municipality of Izola in Slovenia; theIstria,Primorje-Gorski Kotar,Lika-Senj,Zadar,Šibenik-Knin,Split-DalmatiaandDubrovnik-Neretvacounties of Croatia; theHerzegovina-Neretva Cantonof Bosnia–Herzegovina; the municipalities ofKotorandTivatin Montenegro; theFier,Vlorë,Tirana,Shkodër,DurrësandLezhëcounties of Albania; and the Greek prefectures ofThesprotiaandCorfu.

Disputes

The former Yugoslav republics' land borders were decided by demarcation commissions implementing theAVNOJdecisions of 1943 and 1945,but the exact course has not been agreed upon by the successor states, which makes the maritime boundaries' definition difficult;the maritime borders were not defined at all in the time of Yugoslavia.In addition, the maritime boundary between Albania and Montenegro was not defined before the 1990s.

Croatia and Slovenia started negotiations to define maritime borders in theGulf of Piranin 1992 but failed to agree, resulting in a dispute. Both countries also declared their economic zones, which partially overlap.Croatia's application to become anEU member statewas initially suspended pending resolution of itsborder disputes with Slovenia.These disputes with Slovenia were eventually settled with an agreement to accept the decision of aninternational arbitrationcommission set up via theUN,enabling Croatia to progress towards EU membership.Aside from the EU membership difficulty, even before its settling the dispute has caused no major practical problems.

The maritime boundary between Bosnia–Herzegovina and Croatia was formally settled in 1999, but a few issues are still in dispute—theKlek peninsulaand two islets in the border area. The Croatia–Montenegro maritime boundary is disputed in the Bay of Kotor, at thePrevlakapeninsula. This dispute was exacerbated by the peninsula's occupation by theYugoslav People's Armyand later by the (Serbian–Montenegrin)FR Yugoslav Army,which in turn was replaced by aUnited Nations observer missionthat lasted until 2002. Croatia took over the area with an agreement that allowed Montenegrin presence in the bay's Croatian waters, and the dispute has become far less contentious since Montenegro's independence in 2006.

Economy

Fishing

ATrabucco,old fishing machine typical ofAbruzzoregion in Italy

The Adriatic Seafishery's production is distributed among countries in the basin.In 2000, the nominal—on a live weight basis—total landings of all Adriatic fisheries reached 110,000tonnes(108,000long tons).Overfishingis a recognised problem—450 species of fish live in the Adriatic Sea, including 120 species threatened by excessive commercial fishing, a problem exacerbated by pollution andglobal warming.Overexploited species includecommon dentex,red scorpionfish,monkfish,John Dory,blue shark,spiny dogfish,mullet,red mullet,Norway lobster,as well asEuropean hake,andsardines.Turtlesandcommon bottlenose dolphinsare also being killed by fishing nets. The depleted fish stock, and Croatia'sEcological and Fisheries Protection Zone(ZERP) contributed to accusations of overfishing exchanged between Italian and Croatian fishermen.ZERP was introduced in 2003, but its application to EU member states was suspended in 2004.The depleted stocks of fish are being addressed through a new proposed EU fisheries policy that was scheduled to take effect in 2013, whenCroatia acceded to the EU,and restore the stocks to sustainable levels by 2015.

The largest volume of fish harvesting was in Italy, where the total production volume in 2007 stood at 465,637 tonnes (458,283 long tons).In 2003, 28.8% of Italian fisheries production volume was generated in the Northern and central Adriatic, and 24.5% in Apulia (from the Southern Adriatic and Ionian Sea). Italian fisheries, including those operating outside the Adriatic, employed 60,700 in theprimary sector,includingaquaculture(which comprises 40% of the total fisheries production). The total fisheries output's gross value in 2002 was $1.9 billion.

Fishing boatin Croatia

In 2007, Croatia's production in live weight reached 53,083 tonnes (52,245 long tons).In 2006, the total Croatian fisheries production volume was 37,800 tonnes (37,200 long tons) of catch and 14,200 tonnes (14,000 long tons) from marine aquaculture. Croatian fisheries employed approximately 20,000. The 2006 marine capture catch in Croatian waters consisted ofsardines(44.8%),anchovies(31.3%),tunas(2.7%), otherpelagic fish(4.8%),hake(2.4%),mullet(2.1%), otherdemersal fish(8.3%),crustaceans(largelylobsterandNephrops norvegicus) (0.8%),shellfish(largelyoystersandmussels) (0.3%),cuttlefish(0.6%),squids(0.2%) andoctopusesand othercephalopods(1.6%). Croatian marine aquaculture production consisted of tuna (47.2%), oysters and mussels (28.2% combined) andbassandbream(24.6% combined).

In 2007, Albanian fisheries production amounted to 7,505 tonnes (7,386 long tons),including aquaculture production, which reached 1,970 tonnes (1,940 long tons) in 2006. At the same time, Slovenian fisheries produced a total of 2,500 tonnes (2,460 long tons) with 55% of the production volume originating in aquaculture, representing the highest ratio in the Adriatic. Finally, the Montenegrin fisheries production stood at 911 tonnes (897 long tons) in 2006, with only 11 tonnes coming from aquaculture.In 2007, the fisheries production in Bosnia–Herzegovina reached volume of 9,625 and 2,463 tonnes (9,473 and 2,424 long tons) in Slovenia.

Tourism

The countries bordering the Adriatic Sea are significant tourist destinations. The largest number of tourist overnight stays and the most numerous tourist accommodation facilities are recorded in Italy, especially in the Veneto region (around Venice). Veneto is followed by the Emilia-Romagna region and by theAdriatic Croatiancounties.The Croatian tourist facilities are further augmented by 21,000 nautical ports andmoorings;nautical touristsare attracted to various types of marineprotected areas.

All countries along the Adriatic coast, except Albania and Bosnia–Herzegovina, take part in theBlue Flag beachcertification programme (of theFoundation for Environmental Education), for beaches andmarinasmeeting strict quality standards including environmental protection, water quality, safety and services criteria.As of January 2012, the Blue Flag has been awarded to 103 Italian Adriatic beaches and 29 marinas, 116 Croatian beaches and 19 marinas, 7 Slovenian beaches and 2 marinas, and 16 Montenegrin beaches.Adriatic tourism is a significant source of income for these countries, especially in Croatia and Montenegro where the tourism income generated along the Adriatic coast represents the bulk of such income.The direct contribution of travel and tourism to Croatia's GDP stood at 5.1% in 2011, with the total industry contribution estimated at 12.8% of the national GDP.For Montenegro, the direct contribution of tourism to the national GDP is 8.1%, with the total contribution to the economy at 17.2% of Montenegrin GDP.Tourism in Adriatic Croatia has recently exhibited greater growth than in the other regions around the Adriatic.

• 
  Riminiis a major seaside tourist resort in Italy.
• 
  TheBarcolana regattainTrieste,Italy, was named "the greatest sailing race" by theGuinness World Recordfor its 2,689 boats and over 16,000 sailors on the starting line.
• 
  View ofUlcinj,Montenegro
• 
  TheZlatni Rat(Golden Cape) on the island ofBrač
• 
  ThePalace of the Emperor DiocletianinSplit
• 
  The coast ofNeum,the only town to be situated along Bosnia and Herzegovina's 20 km (12 mi) of coastline
• 
  Portorožis the largest seaside tourist centre in Slovenia.

Tourism in the Adriatic Sea area

Country	Region	CAF beds*	Hotel beds	Overnight Stays
Albania	—	?	?	2,302,899
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Neummunicipality	c.6,000	1,810	280,000
Croatia	Adriatic Croatia	1,028,793	119,042	67,231,198
Italy	Friuli-Venezia Giulia	152,847	40,921	8,656,077
	Veneto	692,987	209,700	60,820,308
	Emilia-Romagna	440,999	298,332	37,477,880
	the Marches	193,965	66,921	10,728,507
	Abruzzo	108,747	50,987	33,716,112
	Molise	11,711	6,383	7,306,951
	Apulia**	238,972	90,618	12,982,987
Montenegro	—	40,427	25,916	7,964,893
Slovenia	Seaside municipalities	24,080	9,330	1,981,141
*Beds in all collective accommodation facilities; includes "Hotel beds" figure also shown separately **Includes both Adriatic and Ionian sea coasts

Transport

See also:Ship transport

There are nineteen Adriatic Sea ports (in four different countries) that each handles more than a million tonnes of cargo per year. The largest cargo ports among them are thePort of Trieste(the largest Adriatic cargo port in Italy), the Port of Venice, thePort of Ravenna,thePort of Koper(the largest Slovenian port),thePort of Rijeka(the largest Croatian cargo port), and thePort of Brindisi.

Port ofTrieste,the largest cargo port in the Adriatic

The largest passenger ports in the Adriatic are thePort of Split(the largest Croatian passenger port) and ports inAncona(the largest Italian passenger seaport in the Adriatic).The largest seaport in Montenegro is thePort of Bar.In 2010, the Northern Adriatic seaports of Trieste, Venice, Ravenna, Koper and Rijeka founded theNorth Adriatic Ports Associationto position themselves more favourably in the EU's transport systems.

The port of Trieste is of particular importance for Central Europe because this is where theTransalpine Pipelinebegins, supplying 100 percent of southern Germany, 90 percent of Austria and 50 percent of the Czech Republic with crude oil.

Major Adriatic ports*, annual transport volume

Port	Country, Region/County	Cargo (tonnes)	Passengers
Ancona	Italy,the Marches	10,573,000	1,483,000
Bari	Italy,Apulia	3,197,000	1,392,000
Barletta	Italy, Apulia	1,390,000	—
Brindisi	Italy, Apulia	10,708,000	469,000
Chioggia	Italy,Veneto	2,990,000	—
Durrës	Albania,Durrës	3,441,000	770,000
Koper	Slovenia,Slovenian Istria	18,000,000	100,300
Manfredonia	Italy, Apulia	1,277,000	—
Monfalcone	Italy,Friuli-Venezia Giulia	4,544,000	—
Ortona	Italy,Abruzzo	1,340,000	—
Ploče	Croatia,Dubrovnik-Neretva	5,104,000	146,000
Porto Nogaro	Italy, Friuli-Venezia Giulia	1,475,000	—
Rabac	Croatia,Istria	1,090,000	669,000
Ravenna	Italy,Emilia-Romagna	27,008,000	—
Rijeka	Croatia,Primorje-Gorski Kotar	15,441,000	219,800
Split	Croatia,Split-Dalmatia	2,745,000	3,979,000
Trieste	Italy, Friuli-Venezia Giulia	39,833,000	—
Venice	Italy,Veneto	32,042,000	1,097,000
*Ports handling more than a million tonnes of cargo or serving more than a million passengers per year Sources:National Institute of Statistics(2007 data, Italian ports, note: the Port of Ancona includes Ancona andFalconara Marittima;passenger traffic below 200,000 is not reported),Croatian Bureau of Statistics(2008 data, Croatian ports, note: the Port of Rijeka includes the Rijeka,Bakar,BršicaandOmišaljterminals;the Port of Ploče includes thePločeandMetkovićterminals),Durrës' Chamber of Commerce and Industry – Albania (2007 data, Port of Durrës),SEOnet (2011 data, Port of Koper)

Oil and gas

Natural gasis produced through several projects, including a joint venture of theEniandINAcompanies that operates two platforms—one is in Croatian waters and draws gas from six wells, and the other (which started operating in 2010) is located in Italian waters. The Adriatic gas fields were discovered in the 1970s,but their development commenced in 1996. In 2008, INA produced 14.58 millionBOEper day of gas.About 100 offshore platforms are located in the Emilia-Romagna region,along with 17 in the Northern Adriatic.Eni estimated itsconcessionsin the Adriatic Sea to hold at least 40,000,000,000 cubic metres (1.4×10¹²cu ft) of natural gas, adding that they may even reach 100,000,000,000 cubic metres (3.5×10¹²cu ft). INA estimates, however, are 50% lower than those supplied by Eni.Oil was discovered in the Northern Adriatic at a depth of approximately 5,400 metres (17,700 ft); the discovery was assessed as not viable because of its location, depth and quality.These gas and oil reserves are part of thePo basinProvince of Northern Italy and the Northern Mediterranean Sea.

In the 2000s, investigation works aimed at discovering gas and oil reserves in the Middle and Southern Adriatic basins intensified, and by the decade's end, oil and natural gas reserves were discovered southeast of the Bari, Brindisi—Rovesti and Giove oil discoveries. Surveys indicate reserves of 3 billionbarrelsofoil in placeand 5.7×10¹⁰cubic metres (2,000,000,000,000 cu ft) of gas in place.The discovery was followed by further surveys off the Croatian coast.In January 2012, INA commenced prospecting for oil off Dubrovnik, marking the resumption of oil exploration along the eastern Adriatic coast after surveys commenced in the late 1980s around the island of Brač were cancelled because of Yugoslavia's breakup andwar in Croatia.Montenegro is also expected to look for oil off its coast.As of January 2012, only 200exploration wellshad been sunk off the Croatian coast, with all but 30 in the Northern Adriatic basin.

Gallery

• Ports in the Adriatic
• 
  Port of Durrës,the largest port in Albania
• 
  Port of Rijeka,the largest cargo port in Croatia
• 
  Port of Koper,the largest port inSlovenia
• 
  Port of Trieste,the largest cargo port in the Adriatic
• 
  Port of Bar,the largest seaport in Montenegro
• 
  Port ofAncona,a large passenger port

See also

• Geography of Albania
• Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina
• Geography of Croatia
• Geography of Europe
• Geography of Italy
• Geography of Montenegro
• Geography of Slovenia

References

Bibliography

• Anthon, Charles(2005).A Classical Dictionary: Containing the Principle Proper Names Mentioned in Ancient Authors.Kessinger Publishing.ISBN978-1-4179-7654-6.
• Barrocu, Giovanni (2003). "Seawater Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers of Italy". In Geta, Juan Antonio López (ed.).Coastal Aquifers Intrusion Technology: Mediterranean Countries.Instituto Geológico y Minero de España.ISBN978-84-7840-471-1.
• Beccaluva, L.; Shallo, M.; Coltorti, M.; Premti, I; Siena, F (1997)."Albania".In Moores, Eldridge M; Fairbridge, Rhodes Whitmore (eds.).Encyclopedia of European and Asian regional geology.Springer.ISBN978-0-412-74040-4.
• Bianchi, Carlo Nike (2007). "Biodiversity issues for the forthcoming tropical Mediterranean Sea". In Relini, Giulio; Ryland, J (eds.).Biodiversity in enclosed seas and artificial marine habitats: proceedings of the 39th European Marine Biology Symposium, held in Genoa, Italy, 21–24 July 2004.Developments in Hydrobiology. Vol. 193.ISBN978-1-4020-6155-4.
• Blake, Gerald Henry; Topalović, Duško; Schofield, Clive H (1996).The maritime boundaries of the Adriatic Sea.IBRU.ISBN978-1-897643-22-8.
• Bombace, Giovanni (1992). "Fisheries of the Adriatic Sea". In Colombo, Giuseppe (ed.).Marine Eutrophication and Population Dynamics: With a Special Section on the Adriatic Sea: 25th European Marine Biology Symposium, Institute of Zoology, University of Ferrara.Olsen&Olsen.ISBN978-87-85215-19-2.
• Braudel, Fernand(1992).Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-08116-1.
• Brown, Gordon S. (2003).The Norman conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily.McFarland.ISBN978-0-7864-1472-7.
• Browning, Robert (1992).The Byzantine Empire.CUA Press.ISBN978-0-8132-0754-4.
• Buckley, Jonathan; Hebbert, Charles; Hughes, Kate (2004).The Rough Guide to Venice & the Veneto.Rough Guides.ISBN978-1-84353-302-3.
• Burgwyn, H. James (1997).Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918–1940.Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-275-94877-1.
• Burns, Thomas S. (1991).A history of the Ostrogoths.Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-253-20600-8.
• Cabanes, Pierre (2008). "Greek colonisation in the Adriatic". In Tsetskhladze, Gocha R. (ed.).Greek colonisation.BRILL.ISBN978-90-04-15576-3.
• Calmet, Antoine Augustin;Taylor, Charles (1830).Calmet's dictionary of the Holy Bible.
• Camuffo, Dario (2001). "Lunar influences on climate". In Cesare Barbieri; Francesca Rampazzi (eds.).Earth-Moon Relationships: Proceedings of the Conference Held in Padova, Italy at the Accademia Galileiana Di Scienze Lettere Ed Arti, November 8–10, 2000.Springer.ISBN978-0-7923-7089-5.
• Chin, David A. (2006).Water-quality engineering in natural systems.John Wiley and Sons.ISBN978-0-471-71830-7.
• Crouzet-Pavan, Elisabeth; Cochrane, Lydia G. (2005).Venice Triumphant.JHU Press.ISBN978-0-8018-8189-3.
• Cunliffe, Barry(2008).Europe Between the Oceans.Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-11923-7.
• Cushman-Roisin, Benoit; Gačić, Miroslav; Poulain, Pierre-Marie (2001).Physical oceanography of the Adriatic Sea.Springer.ISBN978-1-4020-0225-0.
• Ćirković, Sima M. (2004).The Serbs.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-0-631-20471-8.
• D'Agostino, Peter R. (2004).Rome in America.University of North Carolina Press. pp. 127–128.ISBN978-0-8078-5515-7.
• Del Negro, Paola (2001). "Bacterial Abundance in the Adriatic Sea". In Faranda, Francesco; Guglielmo, Letterio; Spezie, Giancarlo (eds.).Mediterranean Ecosystems: structures and processes.Springer.ISBN978-88-470-0114-5.
• Ferla, Maurizio (2005). "APAT duties and techno-scientific activities". In Fletcher, Caroline; Spencer, Tom (eds.).Flooding and environmental challenges for Venice and its lagoon: state of knowledge.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-84046-0.
• Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2007).Encyclopedia of the Age of Political Revolutions and New Ideologies, 1760–1815: Volume 1.Greenwood. p. 495.ISBN978-0-313-33446-7.
• Frucht, Richard C. (2005).Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-57607-800-6.
• Gačić, Miroslav; Civitarese, Giuseppe; Ursella, Laura (1999). "Spatial and seasonal variability of water and biogeochemical fluxes in the Adriatic Sea". InPaola Malanotte-Rizzoli;Valery N. Eremeev (eds.).The Eastern Mediterranean As a Laboratory Basin for the Assessment of Contrasting Ecosystems.Springer.ISBN978-0-7923-5586-1.
• Garwood, Duncan (2009).Mediterranean Europe.Lonely Planet.ISBN978-1-74104-856-8.
• Goodrich, Samuel Griswold (1856).A history of all nations, from the earliest periods to the present time.Miller, Orton & Mulligan.
• Gower, Jim F.R. (2010). "Oceans from Space, a Once-a-Decade Review of Progress: Satellite Oceanography in a Changing World". In Barale, Vittorio; Gower, Jim F.R.; Alberotanza, L. (eds.).Oceanography from Space: Revisited.Springer.ISBN978-90-481-8680-8.
• Grab, Alexander I. (2003).Napoleon and the transformation of Europe.Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-0-333-68274-6.
• Grant, Michael(1978).History of Rome.Schribners.ISBN0-684-15986-4.
• Gruen, Erich S. (1986).The Hellenistic world and the coming of Rome.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-05737-1.
• Hall, John Franklin (1996).Etruscan Italy.Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-8425-2334-9.
• Henderson, James (1994).The frigates.Leo Cooper.ISBN978-0-85052-432-1.
• Hinson, E. Glenn (1995).The church triumphant.Mercer University Press.ISBN978-0-86554-436-9.
• Houde, E. D.; Jukić-Peladić, S.; Brandt, S. B.; Leach, S. D. (1999). "Fisheries: Trends in Catches, Abundance and Management". In Malone, Thomas C. (ed.).Ecosystems at the Land-Sea Margin: Drainage Basin to Coastal Sea.American Geophysical Union.ISBN978-0-87590-269-2.
• Hughes, Holly; Flippin, Alexis Lipsitz; Murphy, Sylvie; Duchaine, Julie (2010).Frommer's 500 Extraordinary Islands.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-0-470-50070-5.
• Ivetic, Egidio (2011). "The Peace of Passarowitz in Venice's Balkan Policy". In Ingrao, Charles; Samardžić, Nikola; Pešalj, Jovan (eds.).The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718.West Lafayette: Purdue University Press. pp. 63–72.ISBN9781557535948.
• James, William M.; Lambert, Andrew D. (2002).The Naval History of Great Britain, Volume 6, 1811–1827.Conway Maritime.ISBN978-0-85177-910-2.
• King, Margaret L.(2003).The Renaissance in Europe.Laurence King Publishing.ISBN978-1-85669-374-5.
• Klemenčič, Matjaž; Žagar, Mitja (2004).The former Yugoslavia's diverse peoples.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-57607-294-3.
• Koler, Božo (2006). "Historic measurements of leveling networks in Slovenia". In Pinter, Nicholas; Grenerczy, Gyula; Weber, John; Stein, Seth; Medak, Damir (eds.).The Adria microplate: GPS geodesy, tectonics and hazards.Springer.ISBN978-1-4020-4234-8.
• Lee, Stephen J. (2003).Europe, 1890–1945.Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-25455-7.
• Levillain, Philippe, ed. (2002).The Papacy: Gaius-Proxies.Routledge.p. 1103.ISBN978-0-415-92230-2.
• Lionello, Piero; Malanotte-Rizzoli, Paola; Boscolo, Roberta (2006).Mediterranean climate variability.Elsevier.ISBN978-0-444-52170-5.
• Lipej, Lovrenc; Dulčić, Jakov (2004). "Fish Biodiversity in the Adriatic Sea". In Griffiths, Huw I; Kryštufek, Boris; Reed, Jane M (eds.).Balkan Biodiversity: Pattern and Process in the European Hotspot.Springer.ISBN978-1-4020-2853-3.
• Lipušček, Uroš (2005).""You Will Not Be Robbed": Slovenes and Great Powers from the Treaty of London in 1915 to the Memorandum of London in 1954 "(PDF).In Pirjevec, Jože (ed.).War and Peace: From the Capitulation of Italy in 1943 Until the Memorandum of London in 1954.University of Primorska;Annales Publishing House; Scientific and Research Institute Koper; The Historical Society for the Southern Littoral. p. 446.ISBN961-6033-67-0.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 13 May 2013.
• Malačič, V.; Faganeli, J.; Malej, A. (2008).Environmental Impact of LNG Terminals in the Gulf of Trieste (Northern Adriatic)(PDF).Springer.ISBN978-1-4020-6575-0.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 9 January 2015.
• Martin, John Jeffries; Romano, Dennis (2002).Venice reconsidered.JHU Press.ISBN978-0-8018-7308-9.
• McKinney, Frank Kenneth (2007). "Chapter 6: Pleistocene and Holocene Sediments".The northern Adriatic ecosystem: Deep time in a shallow sea(illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-13242-8.
• Moranta, Joan; Quetglas, Antoni; Massutí, Enric; Guijarro, Beatriz; Ordines, Francesc; Valls, María (2008). "Research trends on demersal fisheries oceanography in the Mediterranean". In Rades, Charles V.; Tilesman, Evan B. (eds.).Advances in Environmental Research.Nova Publishers.ISBN978-1-60456-413-6.
• Monzali, Luciano (2009).The Italians of Dalmatia.University of Toronto Press.ISBN978-0-8020-9621-0.
• Muço, Betim (2006). "Seismicity of the Adriatic microplate and a possible triggering: geodynamic implication". In Pinter, Nicholas; Grenerczy, Gyula; Weber, John; Stein, Seth; Medak, Damir (eds.).The Adria microplate: GPS geodesy, tectonics and hazards.Springer.ISBN978-1-4020-4234-8.
• Room, Adrian (2006).Placenames of the world.McFarland & Company.ISBN978-0-7864-2248-7.
• Nanjira, Daniel Don (2010).African Foreign Policy and Diplomacy.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-0-313-37982-6.
• Navone, John J. (1996).The land and the spirit of Italy.Legas / Gaetano Cipolla.ISBN978-1-881901-12-9.
• Nicolson, Harold (2000).The Congress of Vienna.Grove Press.ISBN978-0-8021-3744-9.
• Noble, Thomas F. X.; Strauss, Barry S.; Osheim, Duane J.; Neuschel, Kristen B.; Accampo, Elinor Ann (2010).Western Civilization: Beyond Boundaries.Cengage Learning.ISBN978-1-4240-6962-0.
• Norwich, John Julius (1997).A short history of Byzantium.Knopf.ISBN978-0-679-77269-9.
• O'Shea, Brendan (2005).The modern Yugoslav conflict 1991–1995.Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-35705-0.
• Palmer, Alan (2000).Victory 1918.Grove Press.ISBN978-0-8021-3787-6.
• Paul the Deacon(1974). Peters, Edward (ed.).History of the Lombards.University of Pennsylvania Press.ISBN978-0-8122-1079-8.
• Paton, Andrew Archibald (1861).Researches on the Danube and the Adriatic.Trübner.
• Polmar, Norman; Noot, Jurrien (1991).Submarines of the Russian and Soviet navies, 1718–1990.Naval Institute Press.ISBN978-0-87021-570-4.
• Prothero, George Walter; Leathes, Stanley; Ward, Adolphus William (1934).The Cambridge modern history.Cambridge University Press Archive.
• Saliot, Alain (2005).The Mediterranean Sea.Birkhäuser.ISBN978-3-540-25018-0.
• Randić, Andrija (2002). "Prospects for integrated coastal management development in Croatia". In Cicin-Sain, Biliana; Pavlin, Igor; Belfiore, Stefano (eds.).Sustainable coastal management: a transatlantic and Euro-Mediterranean perspective.Springer.ISBN978-1-4020-0888-7.
• Reinert, Stephen W. (2002). "Fragmentation (1204–1453". In Mango, Cyril (ed.).The Oxford History of Byzantium.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-814098-3.
• Sarti, Roland (2004).Italy.Infobase Publishing.ISBN978-0-8160-4522-8.
• Schjerve, Rosita Rindler (2003).Diglossia and power.Walter de Gruyter.ISBN978-3-11-017654-4.
• Schwartz, Maurice L, ed. (2005).Encyclopedia of coastal science.Encyclopedia of earth sciences. Vol. 24. Springer.ISBN978-1-4020-1903-6.
• Sethre, Janet (2003).The souls of Venice.McFarland.ISBN978-0-7864-1573-1.
• Shaw, Stanford J. (1976).History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-29163-7.
• Singleton, Frederick Bernard (1985).A short history of the Yugoslav peoples.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-27485-2.
• Soloviev, Sergey Leonidovich; Solovieva, Olga N.; Go, Chan N.; Kim, Khen S.; Shchetnikov, Nikolay A. (2000).Tsunamis in the Mediterranean Sea, 2000 B.C.-2000 A.D.Springer.ISBN978-0-7923-6548-8.
• Standish, Dominic (2011).Venice in Environmental Peril?: Myth and Reality.University Press of America.ISBN978-0-7618-5664-1.
• Stephens, H. Morse (2010).Europe.Forgotten Books.ISBN978-1-4400-6217-9.
• Tacitus, Cornelius(1853). Anthon, Charles (ed.).The Germania and Agricola, and also selections from the Annals, of Tacitus.Harper.
• Tockner, Klement; Uehlinger, Urs; Robinson, Christopher T (2009). "1.6 Hydrology and Biogeochemistry".Rivers of Europe.Academic Press.ISBN978-0-12-369449-2.
• Tomasevich, Jozo (2001).War and revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945.Stanford University Press.ISBN978-0-8047-3615-2.
• Tomljenović, Bruno; Csontos, László; Márton, Emő; Márton, Péter (2008). "Tectonic evolution of the northwestern Internal Dinarides as constrained by structures and rotation of Medvednica Mountains, North Croatia". In Siegesmund, Siegfried; Fügenschuh, Bernhard; Froitzheim, Niko (eds.).Tectonic aspects of the Alpine-Dinaride-Carpathian system.Geological Society.ISBN978-1-86239-252-6.
• Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2009).A global chronology of conflict.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-85109-667-1.
• Tucker, Spencer C. (2005).World War I.ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-85109-420-2.
• Tucker, Spencer C. (1996).The European powers in the First World War.Taylor & Francis.ISBN978-0-8153-0399-2.
• Valiela, Ivan (2006).Global coastal change.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-1-4051-3685-3.
• Vezzani, Livio; Festa, Andrea; Ghisetti, Francesca C. (2010).Geology and tectonic evolution of the central-southern Apennines, Italy.Geological Society of America.ISBN978-0-8137-2469-0.Retrieved3 February2012.
• Vukas, Budislav (2007). "Sea Boundary Delimitation and Internal Waters". In Mensah, Thomas A; Ndiaye, Malick Tafsir; Wolfrum, Rüdiger (eds.).Law of the Sea, Environmental Law, and Settlement of Disputes: Liber Amicorum Judge Thomas A. Mensah.Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 553–566.ISBN978-90-04-16156-6.
• Vukas, Budislav (2006). "Maritime Delimitation in a Semi-enclosed Sea: The Case of the Adriatic Sea". In Lagoni, Rainer; Vignes, Daniel (eds.).Maritime Delimitation.Brill Publishers.ISBN978-90-04-15033-1.
• Wilkes, John (1995).The Illyrians.Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN978-0-631-19807-9.
• Zore-Armanda,Mira (1979)."Oceanographic Time Series in the Adriatic Sea".Bruun memorial lectures: The importance and application of satellite and remotely sensed data to oceanography.UNESCO.ISBN978-92-3-101746-9.

Further reading

• Kovačić, Darko (1986)."Kitovi Jadranskog mora"[Whales of the Adriatic Sea].Priroda: popularni časopis hrvatskog prirodoslovnog društva.Vol. 74, no. 9–10. pp. 281–283.ISSN0351-0662.

External links

• Region 5 – Western Africa, Mediterranean, Black Sea Nautical Chartsfrom theNational Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
• Nautical Chart 54131 (Adriatic Sea)from the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
• the seashore of our posterity– video recording of Albanian, Croatian, and Montenegrin coasts