Wikipedia

Aedes aegypti

For a similar mosquito native to Asia, seeAedes albopictus.

Aedes aegypti(UK:/ˈiːdiːz/;US:/eɪdz/or/ˈeɪdiːz/fromGreekαηδής'hateful' and/eɪˈdʒɪpti/fromLatin,meaning 'of Egypt'), theyellow fever mosquito,is amosquitothat canspreaddengue fever,chikungunya,Zika fever,Mayaroandyellow feverviruses, and other disease agents. The mosquito can be recognized by black and white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of alyreon the upper surface of itsthorax.This mosquito originated in Africa, but is now found intropical,subtropical and temperate regions throughout the world.

Yellow Fever Mosquito
Adult
Adult
Larva
Larva
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Culicidae
Genus: Aedes
Subgenus: Stegomyia
Species:
A. aegypti
Binomial name
Aedes aegypti
Subspecies[2][3]
  • Aedes aegypti aegypti
  • Aedes aegypti formosus
GlobalAedes aegyptipredicted distribution in 2015,
(blue=absent, red=present)
Synonyms[1]
  • CulexaegyptiLinnaeusinHasselquist, 1762
  • Culex fasciatusFabricius,1805
  • Culex bancroftiSkuse,1889

Biology

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Male (left) and female (center and right)Ae. aegyptiE.A. Goeldi, 1905

Aedes aegyptiis a4-to-7-millimetre-long (5⁄32to35⁄128in), darkmosquitowhich can be recognized by white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of alyreon the upper surface of itsthorax.Females are larger than males. Microscopically females possess small palps tipped with silver or white scales, and their antennae have sparse short hairs, whereas those of males are feathery.Aedes aegyptican be confused withAedes albopictuswithout a magnifying glass: the latter have a white stripe on the top of the mid thorax.[4]

Males live off fruit[5]and only the female bites for blood, which she needs to mature her eggs. To find a host, she is attracted to chemical compounds emitted by mammals, includingammonia,[6]carbon dioxide,[7]lactic acid,andoctenol.[8]Scientists at The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)Agricultural Research Servicestudied the specific chemical structure of octenol to better understand why this chemical attracts the mosquito to its host and found the mosquito has a preference for "right-handed" (dextrorotatory) octenol molecules.[9]The preference for biting humans is dependent on expression of theodorant receptorAaegOr4.[10] The white eggs are laid separately into water and not together, unlike most other mosquitoes, and soon turn black. The larvae feed on bacteria, growing over a period of weeks until they reach the pupa stage.[5]

The lifespan of an adultAe. aegyptiis two to four weeks depending on conditions,[11]but the eggs can be viable for over a year in a dry state, which allows the mosquito to re-emerge after a cold winter or dry spell.[12]

Hosts

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Mammalianhostsincludedomesticated horses,andferalandwild horsesandequidsmore generally.[13] As of 2009 birds were found to be the best food supply forAe. aegyptiamong alltaxa.[14]

Distribution

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Ae. aegyptimosquito distribution in the United States, 2016

Aedes aegyptioriginated in Africa and was spread to the New World through theslave trade,[15]but is now found intropical,subtropical and temperate regions[16]throughout the world.[17] Ae. aegypti'sdistribution has increased in the past two to three decades worldwide, and it is considered to be among the most widespread mosquito species.[18]In 2015, together with a group of colleagues,Khadijetou Lekweiryreported that the species was seen for the first time in Mauritania.[19]

In 2016,Zika virus-capable mosquito populations have been found adapting for persistence in warm temperate climates. Such a population has been identified to exist in parts ofWashington, DC,and genetic evidence suggests they survived at least the last four winters in the region. One of the study researchers noted, "...some mosquito species are finding ways to survive in normally restrictive environments by taking advantage of underground refugia".[20] As the world's climate becomes warmer, the range ofAedes aegyptiand a hardier species originating in Asia, the tiger mosquitoAedes albopictus,which can expand its range to relatively cooler climates, will inexorably spread north and south. Sadie Ryan of theUniversity of Floridawas the lead author in a 2019 study that estimated the vulnerability of naïve populations in geographic regions that currently do not harbor vectors i.e., for Zika in the Old World. Ryan's co-author, Georgetown University's Colin Carlson remarked, "Plain and simple, climate change is going to kill a lot of people."[21]As of 2020, the Northern Territory Government Australia and the Darwin City Council have recommended tropical cities initiate rectification programs to rid their cities of potential mosquito breeding stormwater sumps.[22]A 2019 study found that accelerating urbanization and human movement would also contribute to the spread ofAedesmosquitoes.[23]

In continental Europe,Aedes aegyptiis not established but it has been found in localities close to Europe such as the Asian part ofTurkey.[24]However, a single adult female specimen was found inMarseille(Southern France) in 2018. On the basis of a genetic study and an analysis of the movements of commercial ships, the origin of the specimen could be traced as coming fromCameroon,in Central Africa.[24]

Genomics

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In 2007, thegenomeofAedes aegyptiwas published, after it had been sequenced and analyzed by a consortium including scientists atThe Institute for Genomic Research(now part of theJ. Craig Venter Institute), theEuropean Bioinformatics Institute,theBroad Institute,and theUniversity of Notre Dame.The effort in sequencing itsDNAwas intended to provide new avenues for research intoinsecticidesand possible genetic modification to prevent the spread of virus. This was the second mosquito species to have its genome sequenced in full (the first wasAnopheles gambiae). The published data included the 1.38 billionbase pairscontaining the insect's estimated 15,419protein-encoding genes. The sequence indicates the species diverged fromDrosophila melanogaster(the common fruit fly) about250million years ago,andAnopheles gambiaeand this species diverged about150million years ago.[25][26]Matthewset al.,2018 findsA. aegyptito carry a large and diverse number oftransposable elements.Their analysis suggests this is common to all mosquitoes.[27]

Vector of disease

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Aedes aegyptiis avectorfor transmitting numerouspathogens.According to the Walter Reed Biosystematics Units as of 2022,[28]it is associated with the following 54 viruses and 2 species ofPlasmodium:

Aino virus (AINOV),African horse sickness virus(AHSV), Bozo virus (BOZOV), Bussuquara virus (BSQV),Bunyamwera virus(BUNV), Catu virus (CATUV),Chikungunya virus(CHIKV),Chandipura vesiculovirus(CHPV),Cypovirus(unnamed),Cache Valley virus(CVV),Dengue virus(DENV),Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus(EEEV),Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus(EHDV), Guaroa virus (GROV),Hart Park virus(HPV), Ilheus virus (ILHV), Irituia virus (IRIV), Israel Turkey Meningoencephalitis virus (ITV), Japanaut virus (JAPV), Joinjakaka (JOIV),Japanese encephalitis virus(JBEV), Ketapang virus (KETV),Kunjin virus(KUNV),La Crosse virus(LACV),Mayaro virus(MAYV),Marburg virus(MBGV), Marco virus (MCOV), Melao virus (MELV), Marituba virus (MTBV), Mount Elgon bat virus (MEBV),Mucambo virus(MUCV), Murray Valley Encephalitis virus (MVEV), Navarro virus (NAVV), Nepuyo virus (NEPV), Nola virus (NOLV), Ntaya virus (NTAV), Oriboca virus (ORIV),Orungo virus(ORUV), Restan virus (RESV),Rift Valley fever virus(RVFV),Semliki Forest virus(SFV),Sindbis virus(SINV),Tahyna virus(TAHV), Tsuruse virus (TSUV), Tyuleniy virus (TYUV),Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus(VEEV),Vesicular stomatitis virus(Indiana serotype), Warrego virus (WARV),West Nile virus(WNV),Wesselsbron virus(WSLV), Yaounde virus (YAOV),Yellow fever virus(YFV), Zegla virus (ZEGV),Zika virus,as well asPlasmodium gallinaceumandPlasmodium lophurae.

This mosquito alsomechanically transmitssomeveterinary diseases.In 1952Fenneret al.,found it transmitting themyxoma virusbetweenrabbits[29]and in 2001 Chihotaet al.,thelumpy skin disease virusbetweencattle.[29][30]

The yellow fever mosquito can contribute to the spread ofreticularcellsarcomaamongSyrian hamsters.[31]

Bite prevention methods

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TheCenters for Disease Control and Preventiontraveler's page on preventingdengue feversuggests usingmosquito repellentsthat containDEET(N, N-diethylmetatoluamide, 20% to 30%). It also suggests:

  1. AlthoughAedes aegyptimosquitoes most commonly feed at dusk and dawn, indoors, in shady areas, or when the weather is cloudy, "they can bite and spread infection all year long and at any time of day."[32][33]
  2. Once a week, scrub off eggs sticking to wet containers, seal or discard them. The mosquitoes prefer to breed in areas ofstagnant water,such as flower vases, uncovered barrels, buckets, and discarded tires, but the most dangerous areas are wet shower floors and toilet tanks, as they allow the mosquitos to breed in the residence. Research has shown that certain chemicals emanating from bacteria in water containers stimulate the female mosquitoes to lay their eggs. They are particularly motivated to lay eggs in water containers that have the correct amounts of specific fatty acids associated with bacteria involved in the degradation of leaves and other organic matter in water. The chemicals associated with the microbial stew are far more stimulating to discerning female mosquitoes than plain or filtered water in which the bacteria once lived.[34]
  3. Wear long-sleeved clothing and long pants when outdoors during the day and evening.
  4. Use mosquito netting over the bed if the bedroom is not air conditioned or screened, and for additional protection, treat the mosquito netting with the insecticide permethrin.

Insect repellents containing DEET (particularly concentrated products) orp-menthane-3,8-diol(fromlemon eucalyptus) were effective in repellingAe. aegyptimosquitoes, while others were less effective or ineffective in a scientific study.[35]TheCenters for Disease Control and Preventionarticle on "Protection against Mosquitoes, Ticks, & Other Arthropods" notes that "Studies suggest that concentrations of DEET above approximately 50% do not offer a marked increase in protection time against mosquitoes; DEET efficacy tends to plateau at a concentration of approximately 50%".[36]Other insect repellents recommended by the CDC include Picaridin (KBR 3023/icaridin),IR3535,and2-undecanone.[37]

Population control efforts

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Insecticides

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Pyrethroidsare commonly used.[38]This widespread use of pyrethroids andDDThas causedKnockdown resistance(kdr) mutations. Almost no research has been done on thefitnessimplications. studies by Kumaret al.,2009 on deltamethrin in India, Plernsubet al.,2013 onpermethrinin Thailand, by Jaramillo-Oet al.,2014 onλ-cyhalothrinin Colombia, by Alvarez-Gonzalezet al.,2017 ondeltamethrinin Venezuela, are all substantiallyconfounded.As of 2019, understanding ofselective pressureunder withdrawal of insecticide is hence limited.[38]

Genetic modification

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Ae. aegyptihas beengenetically modifiedto suppress its own species in an approach similar to thesterile insect technique,thereby reducing the risk of disease. The mosquitoes, known asOX513A,were developed byOxitec,a spinout ofOxford University.Field trials in theCayman Islands,[39]inJuazeiro,[40][41]Brazil,[39]by Carvalhoet al.,2015,[40][41]and inPanama[39]by Neiraet al.,2014[40]have shown that the OX513A mosquitoes reduced the target mosquito populations by more than 90%. This mosquito suppression effect is achieved by a self-limiting gene that prevents the offspring from surviving. Male modified mosquitoes, which do not bite or spread disease, are released to mate with the pest females. Their offspring inherit the self-limiting gene and die before reaching adulthood—before they can reproduce or spread disease. The OX513A mosquitoes and their offspring also carry a fluorescent marker for simple monitoring. To produce more OX513A mosquitoes for control projects, the self-limiting gene is switched off (using theTet-Off system) in the mosquito production facility using an antidote (the antibiotictetracycline), allowing the mosquitoes to reproduce naturally. In the environment, the antidote is unavailable to rescue mosquito reproduction, so the pest population is suppressed.[42]

The mosquito control effect is nontoxic and species-specific, as the OX513A mosquitoes areAe. aegyptiand only breed withAe. aegypti.The result of the self-limiting approach is that the released insects and their offspring die and do not persist in the environment.[43][44]

In Brazil, the modified mosquitoes were approved by the National Biosecurity Technical Commission for releases throughout the country. Insects were released into the wild populations of Brazil, Malaysia, and the Cayman Islands in 2012.[45][46]In July 2015, the city ofPiracicaba,São Paulo, started releasing the OX513A mosquitoes.[47][48]In 2015, the UK House of Lords called on the government to support more work on genetically modified insects in the interest of global health.[49]In 2016, the United StatesFood and Drug Administrationgranted preliminary approval for the use of modified mosquitoes to prevent the spread of the Zika virus.[50]

Another proposed method consists inusing radiation to sterilize male larvaeso that when they mate, they produce no progeny.[51]Male mosquitoes do not bite or spread disease.

Using CRISPR/Cas9 based genome editing to engineer the genome ofAedes aegyptigenes like ECFP (enhanced cyan fluorescent protein), Nix (male-determining factor gene), Aaeg-wtrw (Ae. aegypti water witch locus), Kmo (kynurenine 3-monoxygenase), loqs (loquacious), r2d2 (r2d2 protein), ku70 (ku heterodimer protein gene) and lig4 (ligase4) were targeted to modify the genome ofAedes aegypti.The new mutant will become incapable of pathogen transmission or result in population control.[52]

Infection withWolbachia

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In 2016 research into the use of a bacterium calledWolbachiaas a method of biocontrol was published showing that invasion ofAe. aegyptiby the endosymbiotic bacteria allows mosquitos to be resistant to certain arboviruses such as dengue fever and Zika virus strains currently circulating.[53][54][55]In 2017Alphabet, Inc.started theDebug Projectto infect males of this species withWolbachiabacteria, interrupting the reproductive cycle of these animals.[56]

Fungus infection

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FungalspeciesErynia conica(from the familyEntomophthoraceae) infects (and kills) two types of mosquitos:Aedes aegyptiandCulex restuans.Studies on the fungus have been carried out on its potiential use as a biological control of the mosquitos.[57]

Taxonomy

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The species was first named (asCulex aegypti) in 1757 byFredric Hasselquistin his treatiseIter Palaestinum.[58]Hasselquist was provided with the names and descriptions by his mentor,Carl Linnaeus.This work was later translated into German and published in 1762 asReise nach Palästina.[59]

Ae. aegyptifeeding on a human

To stabilise the nomenclature, a petition to theInternational Commission on Zoological Nomenclaturewas made by P. F. Mattingly, Alan Stone, and Kenneth L. Knight in 1962.[60]It also transpired that, although the nameAedes aegyptiwas universally used for the yellow fever mosquito, Linnaeus had actually described a species now known asAedes(Ochlerotatus)caspius.[60]In 1964, the commission ruled in favour of the proposal, validating Linnaeus' name, and transferring it to the species for which it was in general use.[61]

The yellow fever mosquito belongs to the tribe Aedini of the dipteran familyCulicidaeand to the genusAedesand subgenusStegomyia.According to one recent analysis, the subgenusStegomyiaof the genusAedesshould be raised to the level of genus.[62]The proposed name change has been ignored by most scientists;[63]at least one scientific journal, theJournal of Medical Entomology,has officially encouraged authors dealing with aedile mosquitoes to continue to use the traditional names, unless they have particular reasons for not doing so.[64]The generic name comes from the Ancient Greekἀηδής,aēdēs,meaning "unpleasant"[65]or "odious".

Subspecies

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Twosubspeciesare commonly recognized:

  • Aedes aegyptisubsp.aegypti[2][3]
  • Aedes aegyptisubsp.formosus[2][3]

This classification is complicated by the results of Gloria-Soriaet al.,2016. Although confirming the existence of these two major subspecies, Gloria-Soraet al.finds greater worldwide diversity than previously recognized and a large number of distinct populations separated by various geographic factors.[2][3]Aedes aegypti formosus is found in natural habitats such as forests, while Aedes aegypti aegypti has adapted to urban domestic habitats.[66]

See also

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References

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