Africais the world's second-largest and second-most populouscontinentafterAsia.At about 30.3 million km2(11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% ofEarth's land area and 6% of its total surface area.[7]With 1.4 billion people[1][2]as of 2021, it accounts for about18% of the world'shuman population.Africa's population is the youngest amongst all the continents;[8][9]themedianage in 2012 was 19.7, when the worldwide median age was 30.4.[10]Despite a wide range ofnatural resources,Africa is the least wealthy continentper capitaand second-least wealthy by total wealth, ahead ofOceania.Scholars have attributed this to different factors includinggeography,climate,[11]corruption,[11]colonialism,theCold War,[12][13]andneocolonialism.Despite this low concentration of wealth, recent economic expansion and the large and young population make Africa an important economic market in the broader global context. Africa has a large quantity ofnatural resourcesand food resources, includingdiamonds,sugar,salt,gold,iron,cobalt,uranium,copper,bauxite,silver,petroleum,natural gas,cocoa beans,andtropical fruit.
  | |
| Area | 30,370,000 km2(11,730,000 sq mi) (2nd) |
|---|---|
| Population | 1,393,676,444[1][2](2021;2nd) |
| Population density | 46.1/km2(119.4/sq mi) (2021) |
| GDP(PPP) | $8.05 trillion (2022 est; 4th)[3] |
| GDP (nominal) | $2.96 trillion (2022 est;5th)[4] |
| GDP per capita | $2,180 (Nominal; 2022 est;6th)[5] |
| Religions |
|
| Demonym | African |
| Countries | 54 recognized states, 2 partially recognized states, 4 dependent territories |
| Dependencies | External(4) |
| Languages | 1250–3000 native languages |
| Time zones | UTC-1toUTC+4 |
| Largest cities | Largest urban areas: |
The continent is surrounded by theMediterranean Seato the north, theIsthmus of Suezand theRed Seato the northeast, theIndian Oceanto the southeast and theAtlantic Oceanto the west. The continent includesMadagascarand variousarchipelagos.It contains54 fully recognised sovereign states,eightcities and islands that are part of non-African states,and twode factoindependentstates with limited or no recognition.This count does not includeMaltaandSicily,which are geologically part of the African continent.Algeriais Africa's largest country by area, andNigeriais its largest by population. African nations cooperate through the establishment of theAfrican Union,which is headquartered inAddis Ababa.
Africa straddles theequatorand theprime meridian.It is the only continent to stretch from the northerntemperateto the southern temperate zones.[14]The majority of the continent and its countries are in theNorthern Hemisphere,with a substantial portion and a number of countries in theSouthern Hemisphere.Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part ofWestern Sahara,Algeria,LibyaandEgypt,the northern tip ofMauritania,and the entire territories ofMorocco,Ceuta,Melilla,andTunisiawhich in turn are located above thetropic of Cancer,in thenorthern temperate zone.In the other extreme of the continent, southernNamibia,southernBotswana,great parts ofSouth Africa,the entire territories ofLesothoandEswatiniand the southern tips ofMozambiqueand Madagascar are located below thetropic of Capricorn,in thesouthern temperate zone.
Africa is highlybiodiverse;[15]it is the continent with the largest number ofmegafaunaspecies, as it was least affected by theextinction of the Pleistocene megafauna.However, Africa also isheavily affected by a wide range of environmental issues,including desertification, deforestation,water scarcity,andpollution.These entrenched environmental concerns are expected to worsen asclimate change impacts Africa.The UNIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Changehas identified Africa as the continent mostvulnerable to climate change.[16][17]
Thehistory of Africais long, complex, and varied, and has often been under-appreciated by the globalhistorical community.[18]Africa, particularlyEastern Africa,is widely accepted to be the place of origin of humans and theHominidaeclade,also known as thegreat apes.The earliesthominidsand their ancestors have been dated to around 7 million years ago, includingSahelanthropus,Australopithecus africanus,A. afarensis,Homo erectus,H. habilisandH. ergaster,the earliestHomo sapiens(modern human) remains, found inEthiopia,South Africa,andMorocco,date to circa 233,000, 259,000, and 300,000 years ago, respectively, andHomo sapiensis believed to have originated in Africa around 350,000–260,000 years ago.[a]Africa is also considered by anthropologists to be the most genetically diverse continent as a result of being the longest inhabited.[25][26][27]
Civilisations, such asAncient Egypt,Kerma,Punt,and theTichitt Traditionemerged inNorth,EastandWest Africaduring the 4th and 3rd millennia BC, while theBantu expansionfrom 4000 BC until 1000 AD was substantial in laying the foundations for societies and states inCentral,East,andSouthern Africa.A complex historical patchwork of civilisations,kingdoms, and empiresfollowed, with mostAfrican societiesrecording theirstate apparatus,literature,and history viaoral tradition.Many empires achievedhegemonyin their respective regions, such asGhana,Kanem,Mali,Songhai,andSokotoin West Africa;Ancient Egypt,Kush,Carthage,theFatimids,Almoravids,Almohads,Ayyubids,andMamluksin North Africa;Aksum,Ethiopia,Adal,Kitara,Kilwa,andImerinain East Africa;Kongo,Luba,andLundain Central Africa; andMapungubwe,Zimbabwe,Mutapa,Rozvi,Maravi,Mthwakazi,andZuluin Southern Africa. Within Africaslaverywas historically widespread and internalslave marketswere used to fuel various exportingslave trades,creating variousdiasporas,includingin the Americas.From the late 19th century to early 20th century, driven by theSecond Industrial Revolution,Africa wasrapidly conquered and colonisedbyEuropean nations,reaching a point when onlyEthiopiaandLiberiawere independent polities.[28]European rule hadsignificant impacts on Africa's societiesand the suppression of communal autonomy disruptedtraditional local customary practicesand caused the irreversible transformation of Africa'ssocioeconomic systems.[29]Most present states in Africa emerged from a process ofdecolonisationfollowingWorld War II,and established theOrganisation of African Unityin 1963, the predecessor to the African Union.[30]
Etymology
Afriwas aLatinname used to refer to the inhabitants of what was then known asnorthern Africa,located west of theNileriver, and in its widest sense referring to all lands south of theMediterranean,also known asAncient Libya.[31][32]This name seems to have originally referred to a native Libyan tribe, an ancestor of modernBerbers;seeTerencefor discussion. The name had usually been connected with thePhoenicianwordʿafarmeaning "dust",[33]but a 1981 hypothesis[34]has asserted that it stems from theBerberwordifri(pluralifran) meaning "cave", in reference to cave dwellers.[35]The same word[35]may be found in the name of theBanu IfranfromAlgeriaandTripolitania,a Berber tribe originally fromYafran(also known asIfrane) in northwesternLibya,[36]as well as the city ofIfraneinMorocco.
UnderRomanrule,Carthagebecame the capital of the province then namedAfrica Proconsularis,following its defeat of theCarthaginiansin theThird Punic Warin 146 BC, which also included the coastal part of modernLibya.[37]The Latin suffix-icacan sometimes be used to denote a land (e.g., inCelticafromCeltae,as used byJulius Caesar). The later Muslim region ofIfriqiya,following its conquest of theByzantine (Eastern Roman)Empire'sExarchatus Africae,also preserved a form of the name.
According to the Romans, Africa lies to the west of Egypt, while "Asia" was used to refer toAnatoliaand lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographerPtolemy(85–165 CE), indicatingAlexandriaalong thePrime Meridianand making the isthmus of Suez and theRed Seathe boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of "Africa" expanded with their knowledge.
Other etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name "Africa":
- The 1st-century Jewish historianFlavius Josephus(Ant. 1.15) asserted that it was named forEpher,grandson ofAbrahamaccording toGen.25:4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya.
- Isidore of Sevillein his 7th-centuryEtymologiaeXIV.5.2. suggests "Africa" comes from the Latinaprica,meaning "sunny".
- Massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptianaf-rui-ka,meaning "to turn toward the opening of the Ka." TheKais the energetic double of every person and the "opening of the Ka" refers to a womb or birthplace. Africa would be, for the Egyptians, "the birthplace."[38]
- Michèle Fruyt in 1976 proposed[39]linking the Latin word withafricus"south wind", which would be of Umbrian origin and mean originally "rainy wind".
- Robert R. Stieglitz ofRutgers Universityin 1984 proposed: "The name Africa, derived from the Latin*Aphir-ic-a,is cognate to HebrewOphir['rich']. "[40]
- Ibn Khallikanand some other historians claim that the name of Africa came from aHimyariteking called Afrikin ibn Kais ibn Saifi ( "Afrikus son of Abraham" ) who subdued Ifriqiya.[41][42][43]
- Arabicafrīqā(feminine noun) andifrīqiyā,now usually pronouncedafrīqiyā(feminine) 'Africa', from‘afara[‘ =‘ain,not’alif] 'to be dusty' from‘afar'dust, powder' and‘afir'dried, dried up by the sun, withered' and‘affara'to dry in the sun on hot sand' or 'to sprinkle with dust'.[44]
- Possibly Phoenicianfaraqain the sense of 'colony, separation'.[45]
History
Prehistory
Africa is considered by mostpaleoanthropologiststo be theoldest inhabited territoryon Earth, with the Human species originating from the continent.[46]During the mid-20th century,anthropologistsdiscovered manyfossilsand evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as seven million years ago (Before present,BP). Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to haveevolvedinto modern humans, such asAustralopithecus afarensisradiometrically datedto approximately 3.9–3.0 million years BP,[47]Paranthropus boisei(c. 2.3–1.4 million years BP)[48]andHomo ergaster(c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BP) have been discovered.[7]
After the evolution ofHomo sapiensapproximately 350,000 to 260,000 years BP in Africa,[20][21][22][23]the continent was mainly populated by groups ofhunter-gatherers.[49][50]These first modern humans left Africa and populated the rest of theglobeduring theOut of Africa IImigration dated to approximately 50,000 years BP, exiting the continent either acrossBab-el-Mandebover theRed Sea,[51][52]theStrait of Gibraltarin Morocco,[53][54]or theIsthmus of Suezin Egypt.[55]
Other migrations of modern humans within the African continent have been dated to that time, with evidence of early human settlement found in Southern Africa, Southeast Africa, North Africa, and theSahara.[56]
Emergence of civilization
The size of the Sahara has historically been extremely variable, with its area rapidly fluctuating and at times disappearing depending on global climatic conditions.[57]At the end of theIce ages,estimated to have been around 10,500 BCE, the Sahara had again become a green fertile valley, and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands insub-Saharan Africa,withrock art paintingsdepicting a fertile Sahara and large populations discovered inTassili n'Ajjerdating back perhaps 10 millennia.[58]However, the warming and drying climate meant that by 5000 BC, the Sahara region was becoming increasingly dry and hostile. Around 3500 BC, due to a tilt in the Earth'sorbit,the Sahara experienced a period of rapid desertification.[59]The population trekked out of the Sahara region towards the Nile Valley below theSecond Cataractwhere they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central andEastern Africa.Since this time, dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa and, increasingly during the last 200 years, inEthiopia.
The domestication of cattle in Africa preceded agriculture and seems to have existed alongside hunter-gatherer cultures. It is speculated that by 6000 BC, cattle were domesticated in North Africa.[60]In the Sahara-Nile complex, people domesticated many animals, including the donkey and a small screw-horned goat which was common from Algeria toNubia.Between 10,000 and 9,000 BC, pottery was independently invented in the region of Mali in the savannah of West Africa.[61][62]In thesteppesandsavannahsof the Sahara andSahelin Northern West Africa, people possibly ancestral to modernNilo-SaharanandMandécultures started to collect wildmillet,[63]around 8000 to 6000 BCE. Later,gourds,watermelons,castor beans,andcottonwere also collected.[64]Sorghum was first domesticated in EasternSudanaround 4000 BC, in one of the earliest instances of agriculture in human history. Its cultivation would gradually spread across Africa, before spreading to India around 2000 BC.[65][66]
People around modern-day Mauritania started makingpotteryand built stone settlements (e.g.,Tichitt,Oualata). Fishing, using bone-tippedharpoons,became a major activity in the numerous streams and lakes formed from the increased rains.[67]In West Africa, the wet phase ushered in an expandingrainforestand wooded savanna fromSenegaltoCameroon.Between 9,000 and 5,000 BC,Niger–Congo speakersdomesticated theoil palmandraffia palm.Black-eyed peasandvoandzeia(African groundnuts), were domesticated, followed byokraandkola nuts.Since most of the plants grew in the forest, the Niger–Congo speakers invented polished stone axes for clearing forest.[68]
Around 4000 BC, the Saharan climate started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace.[69]This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasingdesertification.This, in turn, decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and encouraged migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of West Africa.[69]During the first millennium BC, a reduction in wild grain populations related to changing climate conditions facilitated the expansion of farming communities and the rapid adoption of rice cultivation around the Niger River.[70][71]
By the first millennium BC,ironworkinghad been introduced in Northern Africa. Around that time it also became established in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, either through independent invention there or diffusion from the north[72][73]and vanished under unknown circumstances around 500 AD, having lasted approximately 2,000 years,[74]and by 500 BC, metalworking began to become commonplace in West Africa.Ironworkingwas fully established by roughly 500 BC in many areas of East and West Africa, although other regions did not begin ironworking until the early centuries CE. Copper objects fromEgypt,North Africa, Nubia, and Ethiopia dating from around 500 BC have been excavated in West Africa, suggesting thatTrans-Saharan tradenetworks had been established by this date.[69]
4th millenium BC – 6th century AD
Northeast Africa
From 3500 BC,nomes(ruled bynomarchs) coalesced to form the kingdoms ofLower EgyptandUpper Egyptin northeast Africa. Around 3100 BCUpper EgyptconqueredLower Egyptto unifyEgyptunder the1st dynasty,with the process of consolidation and assimilation completed by the time of the3rd dynastywho formed theOld Kingdom of Egyptin 2686 BC.[75]: 62–63 TheKingdom of Kermaemerged around this time to become the dominant force inNubia,controlling territory as large as Egypt between the 1st and 4thcataracts of the Nile.[76][77]The4th dynastyoversaw the height of theOld Kingdom,and constructed manygreat pyramids,however under the6th dynastypower gradually decentralised to the nomarchs, culminating in the disintegration of the kingdom, exacerbated by drought and famine, thus commencing theFirst Intermediate Periodin 2200 BC. This shattered state would last until 2055 BC when the11th dynasty,based inThebes,conquered the others to form theMiddle Kingdom of Egypt,with the12th dynastyexpanding intoLower Nubiaat the expense ofKerma.[75]: 68–71 In 1700 BC, theMiddle Kingdomfractured in two, ushering in theSecond Intermediate Period.TheHyksos,a militaristic people fromPalestine,invaded and conquered Lower Egypt, whileKermacoordinated invasions deep into Egypt to reach its greatest extent.[78]In 1550 BC, the18th dynastyeventually expelled theHyksos,and established theNew Kingdom of Egypt.Using the advanced military technology theHyksoshad brought, theNew Kingdomconquered theLevantfrom theCanaanites,Mittani,Amorites,andHittites,and extinguishedKerma,incorporatingNubiainto the empire, and sending theEgyptian empireinto its golden age.[75]: 73 Internal struggles, drought, famine, and invasions by aconfederation of seafaring peoplescontributed to theNew Kingdom's collapse in 1069 BC, commencing theThird Intermediate Period.[75]: 76–77
Egypt's collapse liberated the more EgyptianisedKingdom of Kushin Nubia, who manoeuvred into power in Upper Egypt and conquered Lower Egypt in 754 BC to form theKushite Empire.The Kushites ruled for a century and oversaw arevival in pyramid building,until they wereforcibly driven out of Egypt by the Assyriansin 663 BC as reprisal for their expansion towards theAssyrian Empire.[79]The Assyrians installed apuppet dynastywhich later gained independence and once moreunified Egypt,until they were conquered by theAchaemenid Empirein 525 BC.[75]: 77 Egypt regained independence under the28th dynastyin 404 BC however they were later reconquered by theAchaemenidsin 343 BC. The conquest ofAchaemenid EgyptbyAlexander the Greatin 332 BC marked the beginning ofHellenistic ruleand the installation of theMacedonianPtolemaic dynastyin Egypt.[80]: 119 ThePtolemaicslost their holdings outside of Africa to theSeleucidsin theSyrian Wars,however expanded intoCyrenaicaand subjugatedKushin the 3rd century BC. In the 1st century BC,Ptolemaic Egyptbecame entangled in aRoman civil war,leading to its conquest by theRomansin 30 BC. TheCrisis of the Third Centuryin theRoman Empirefreed the Levantine city state ofPalmyrawhichconquered Egypt,however their brief rule ended when they were reconquered by theRomans.In the midst of this,Kushregained total independence from Egypt, and they would persist as a major regional power until, having been weakened from internal rebellion amid worsening climatic conditions, invasions by bothAksumand theNobacaused their disintegration intoMakuria,Alodia,andNobatiain the 5th century AD. The Romans managed to hold on to Egypt for the rest of the ancient period.
Horn of Africa
In theHorn of Africa,there was theLand of Punt,a kingdom on theRed Sea,likely located in modern-dayEritreaor northernSomaliland.[81]The Ancient Egyptians initially traded via middle-men with Punt until in 2350 BC when they established direct relations. They would become close trading partners for over a millennium. Towards the end of the ancient period, northernEthiopiaandEritreabore the Kingdom ofD'mtbeginning in 980 BC. In modern-daySomaliaandDjiboutithere was theMacrobian Kingdom,with archaeological discoveries indicating the possibility of other unknown sophisticated civilisations at this time.[82][83]After D'mt's fall in the 5th century BC theEthiopian Plateaucame to be ruled by numerous smaller unknown kingdoms who experienced strongsouth Arabian influence,until the growth and expansion ofAksumin the 1st century BC.[84]Along the Horn's coast there were manyancient Somali city-stateswhich thrived off of thewider Red Sea tradeand transported their cargo viabeden,exportingmyrrh,frankincense,spices,gum,incense,andivory,with freedom from Roman interference causing Indians to give the cities a lucrative monopoly oncinnamonfromancient India.[85]
TheKingdom of Aksumgrew from aprincipalityinto a major power on thetrade route between Rome and Indiathrough conquering its unfortunately unknown neighbours, gaining a monopoly onIndian Ocean tradein the region. Aksum's rise had them rule over much of the regions fromLake Tanato the valley of theNile,and they further conquered parts of the ailingKingdom of Kush,led campaigns against theNobaandBejapeoples, andexpanded into South Arabia.[86][87][88]This led the Persian prophetManito consider Aksum as one of the fourgreat powersof the 3rd century AD alongsidePersia,Rome,andChina.[89]In the 4th century ADAksum's kingconverted to Christianity and Aksum's population, who had followedsyncretic mixes of local beliefs,slowly followed. The end of the 5th century saw Aksum allied with theByzantine Empire,who viewed themselves as defenders ofChristendom,balanced against theSassanid Empireand theHimyarite Kingdomin Arabia.
Northwest Africa
TheMaghrebandIfriqiyawere mostly cut off from thecradle of civilisationin Egypt by theLibyan desert,exacerbated byEgyptian boatsbeing tailored to theNileand not coping well in the openMediterranean Sea.This caused its societies to develop contiguous to those ofSouthern Europe,untilPhoenician settlementscame to dominate the most lucrative trading locations in theGulf of Tunis.[90]: 247 Phoenician settlements subsequently grew intoAncient Carthageafter gaining independence fromPhoeniciain the 6th century BC, and they would build anextensive empireand a strictmercantilenetwork, all secured by one of the largest and most powerful navies in theancient Mediterranean.[90]: 251–253 Carthage would meet its demise in thePunic Warsagainst the expansionaryRoman Republic,however momentum in these wars was not linear, with Carthage initially experiencing considerable success in theSecond Punic WarfollowingHannibal's infamouscrossing of the alpsinto northernItaly.[90]: 256–257 Their defeat and subsequent collapse of their empire would produce two further polities in the Maghreb;Numidia,which had assisted the Romans in the Second Punic War,Mauretania,aMauritribal kingdomand home of the legendaryKing Atlas,and various tribes such asGaramantes,Musulamii,andBavares.TheThird Punic Warwould result in Carthage's total defeat in 146 BC and theRomansestablished the province ofAfrica,withNumidiaassuming control of many of Carthage's African ports. Towards the end of the 2nd century BCMauretaniafought alongside Numidia'sJugurthain theJugurthine Waragainst the Romans after he had usurped the Numidian throne from a Roman ally. Together they inflicted heavy casualties that quaked theRoman Senate,with the war only ending inconclusively when Mauretania'sBocchus Isold outJugurthato the Romans.[90]: 258
At the turn of the millennium, they both would face the same fate as Carthage and be conquered by the Romans who establishedMauretaniaandNumidiaas provinces of their empire, whileMusulamii,led byTacfarinas,andGaramanteswere eventually defeated in war in the 1st century AD however weren't conquered.[91]: 261–262 In the 5th century AD theVandals conquered north Africaprecipitating thefall of Rome.Swathes ofindigenous peopleswould regain self-governance in theMauro-Roman Kingdomand its numerous successor polities in the Maghreb, namely the kingdoms ofOuarsenis,Aurès,andAltava.TheVandalsruledIfriqiyafor a century untilByzantine reconquestin the early 6th century AD. The Byzantines and the Berber kingdoms fought minor inconsequential conflicts, such as in the case ofGarmul,however largely coexisted.[91]: 284 Further inland to the ByzantineExarchate of Africawere theSanhajain modern-dayAlgeria,a broad grouping of three groupings oftribal confederations,one of which is theMasmudagrouping in modern-dayMorocco,along with the nomadicZenata;their composite tribes would later go onto shape much ofNorth African history.
West Africa
In the westernSahelthe rise of settled communities occurred largely as a result of the domestication ofmilletand ofsorghum.Archaeology points to sizable urban populations in West Africa beginning in the 4th millennium BC, which had crucially developediron metallurgyby 1200 BC, in bothsmeltingandforgingfor tools and weapons.[92]Extensive east-west belts ofdeserts,grasslands,andforestsfrom north to south were crucial for the moulding of their respective societies and meant that prior to the accession oftrans-Saharan trade routes,symbiotic trade relations developed in response to the opportunities afforded by north–south diversity in ecosystems.[93]Various civilisations prospered in this period. From 4000 BC, theTichitt culturein modern-dayMauritaniaandMaliwas the oldest knowncomplexly organised societyin West Africa, with a four tieredhierarchicalsocial structure.[94]Other civilisations include theKintampo culturefrom 2500 BC in modern-dayGhana,[95]theNok culturefrom 1500 BC in modern-dayNigeria,[96]theDaima culturearoundLake Chadfrom 550 BC,Djenné-Djennofrom 250 BC in modern-dayMali,and theSerer civilisationin modern-daySenegalwhich built theSenegambian stone circlesfrom the 3rd century BC. There is also detailedrecord[97]ofIgodomigodo,a small kingdom founded presumably in 40 BC which would later go on to form theBenin Empire.[98]
Towards the end of the 3rd century AD, awet periodin the Sahel created areas for human habitation and exploitation which had not been habitable for the best part of a millennium, with theKingdom of Wagadu,the local name of theGhana Empire,rising out of theTichitt culture,growing wealthy following the introduction of thecamelto the western Sahel, revolutionising thetrans-Saharan tradewhich linked their capital andAoudaghostwithTahertandSijilmasain North Africa.[99]Soninke traditions likely contain content from prehistory, mentioning multiple previous foundings of Wagadu, and holds that the final founding of Wagadu occurred after their first king killedBida,a serpent deity, who was guarding a well, although accounts differ, with some stating he did a deal with Bida to sacrifice one maiden a year in exchange for assurance regarding plenty of rainfall and gold supply.[100]Wagadu's core traversed modern-day southernMauritaniaand westernMali,andSoninketraditionportrays early Ghana as warlike, with horse-mounted warriors key to increasing its territory and population, although details of their expansion are extremely scarce.[99]Wagadu made its profits from maintaining a monopoly ongoldheading north andsaltheading south, despite not controlling the gold fields themselves, located in theforest regions.[101]It is probable that Wagadu's dominance on trade allowed for the gradual consolidation of manypolitiesinto aconfederated state,whose composites stood in varying relations to the core, from fully administered to nominal tribute-paying parity.[102]Based onlarge tumuliscattered across West Africa dating to this period, it has been stipulated that relative to Wagadu there were further simultaneous and preceding kingdoms which have unfortunately been lost to time.[103][94]
Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa
1= 2000–1500 BC origin
2=c. 1500 BCfirst dispersal
2.a= Eastern Bantu
2.b= Western Bantu
3= 1000–500 BCUrewenucleus of Eastern Bantu
4–7= southward advance
9= 500–1 BC Congo nucleus
10= AD 1–1000 last phase[104][105][106]
In Central Africa theSao Civilisationflourished for over a millennium beginning in the 6th century BC. The Sao lived by theChari Riversouth ofLake Chadin territory that later became part of present-dayCameroonandChad.Sao artifacts show that they were skilled workers inbronze,copper,andiron,[107]with finds including bronze sculptures, terracotta statues of human and animal figures, coins, funerary urns, household utensils, jewellery, highly decorated pottery, and spears.[108]Nearby, aroundLake Ejaghamin south-westCameroon,theEkoi Civilisationrose circa 2nd century AD, and are most notable for constructing theIkom monoliths.Further east, the northern part of theSwahili coastwas home to the elusiveAzania,most likely aSouthern Cushiticpolity.[109]
TheBantu expansionconstituted a major series of migrations ofBantu peoplesfrom central Africa to eastern and southern Africa and was substantial in the settling of the continent.[110]Commencing in the 2nd millennium BC, the Bantu began to migrate fromCameroonto central, eastern, and southern Africa, laying the foundations for future states such as theKingdom of Kongoin theCongo Basin,theEmpire of Kitarain theAfrican Great Lakes,theLuba Empirein theUpemba Depression,theKilwa Sultanatein theSwahili coastby crowding outAzania,withRhaptabeing its last stronghold by the 1st century AD,[111]and formingvarious city statesconstituting theSwahili civilisation.These migrations also prefaced theKingdom of Mapungubwein theZambezi basin.After reaching theZambezi,the Bantu continued southward, with eastern groups continuing to modern-dayMozambiqueand reachingMaputoin the 2nd century AD. Further to the south, settlements of Bantu peoples who were iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen were well established south of theLimpopo Riverby the 4th century AD, displacing and absorbing the originalKhoisan.To their west in theTsodilo hillsofBotswanathere were theSan,asemi-nomadichunter-gathererpeople who are thought to have descended from the first inhabitants of Southern Africa 100,000 yearsBP,making them one of the oldest cultures on Earth.[112]
Ninth to 18th centuries
Pre-colonial Africa possessed perhaps as many as 10,000 different states and polities[114]characterized by many different sorts of political organization and rule. These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers such as theSan peopleof southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of theBantu-speakingpeoplesof central, southern, and eastern Africa; heavily structured clan groups in theHorn of Africa;the largeSahelian kingdoms;and autonomous city-states and kingdoms such as those of theAkan;Edo,Yoruba,andIgbo peoplein West Africa; and theSwahilicoastal trading towns of Southeast Africa.
By the ninth century AD, a string of dynastic states, including the earliestHausastates, stretched across the sub-Saharan savannah from the western regions to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states wereGhana,Gao,and theKanem-Bornu Empire.Ghanadeclined in the eleventh century, but was succeeded by theMali Empirewhich consolidated much of western Sudan in the thirteenth century. Kanem accepted Islam in the eleventh century.
In the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms grew with little influence from theMuslimnorth. TheKingdom of Nriwas established around the ninth century and was one of the first. It is also one of the oldest kingdoms in present-day Nigeria and was ruled by theEze Nri.The Nri kingdom is famous for its elaboratebronzes,found at the town ofIgbo-Ukwu.The bronzes have been dated from as far back as the ninth century.[115]
TheKingdom of Ife,historically the first of these Yoruba city-states or kingdoms, established government under a priestlyoba('king' or 'ruler' in theYoruba language), called theOoni of Ife.Ife was noted as a major religious and cultural centre in West Africa, and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture. The Ife model of government was adapted at theOyo Empire,where its obas or kings, called theAlaafins of Oyo,once controlled a large number of other Yoruba and non-Yoruba city-states and kingdoms; theFonKingdom ofDahomeywas one of the non-Yoruba domains under Oyo control.
TheAlmoravidswere aBerberdynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the eleventh century.[116]TheBanu HilalandBanu Ma'qilwere a collection ofArabBedouintribes from theArabian Peninsulawho migrated westwards via Egypt between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Theirmigrationresulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers, where the locals wereArabized,[117]andArabculture absorbed elements of the local culture, under the unifying framework of Islam.[118]
Following the breakup of Mali, a local leader namedSonni Ali(1464–1492) founded theSonghai Empirein the region of middleNigerand the westernSudanand took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seizedTimbuktuin 1468 andJennein 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successorAskia Mohammad I(1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought to Gao Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship.[119]By the eleventh century, someHausastates – such asKano,Jigawa,Katsina,andGobir– had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicingcaravans,and the manufacture of goods. Until the fifteenth century, these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east.
Height of the slave trade
Slaveryhad long been practiced in Africa.[120][121]Between the 15th and the 19th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World.[122][123][124]In addition, more than 1 million Europeans were captured byBarbary piratesand sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries.[125]
In West Africa, the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in theNew World,increasinganti-slaverylegislation in Europe and America, and theBritish Royal Navy'sincreasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the BritishWest Africa Squadronseized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.[126]
Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King ofLagos",deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.[127]The largest powers of West Africa (theAsante Confederacy,theKingdom of Dahomey,and theOyo Empire) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of "legitimate commerce" in the form ofpalm oil,cocoa,timber and gold, forming the bedrock of West Africa's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars.[128]
Colonialism
TheScramble for Africa[b]was the conquest andcolonisationof most of Africa by sevenWestern Europeanpowers driven by theSecond Industrial Revolutionduring the era of "New Imperialism"(1833–1914). In 1870, 10% of the continent was formally under European control. By 1914, this figure had risen to almost 90%, with onlyLiberia,Ethiopia,andpartsof present-dayLibyaretaining their full sovereignty.[c]
The 1884Berlin ConferenceregulatedEuropean colonisationand trade in Africa, and is seen as emblematic of the "scramble".[130]In the last quarter of the 19th century, there were considerable political rivalries between theEuropean empires,which provided the impetus for the colonisation.[131]The later years of the 19th century saw a transition from "informal imperialism"– military influence and economic dominance – to direct rule.[132]
With the decline of the European colonial empires in the wake of the two world wars, most African coloniesgained independenceduring theCold War,and decided to keep their colonial borders in theOrganisation of African Unityconference of 1964 due to fears of civil wars and regional instability, placing emphasis onpan-Africanism.[133]Independence struggles
Imperial rule by Europeans would continue until after the conclusion ofWorld War II,when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence.Independence movements in Africagained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, Libya, a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956,TunisiaandMoroccowon their independence from France.[134]Ghanafollowed suit the next year (March 1957),[135]becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be granted independence. Over the next decade, waves ofdecolonizationtook place across the continent, culminating in the 1960Year of Africaand the establishment of theOrganisation of African Unityin 1963.[30]
Portugal's overseas presence insub-Saharan Africa(most notably inAngola,Cape Verde,Mozambique,Guinea-Bissau,and São Tomé and Príncipe) lasted from the 16th century to 1975, after theEstado Novoregime was overthrown ina military coup in Lisbon.Rhodesiaunilaterally declared independencefrom the United Kingdom in 1965, under thewhite minoritygovernment ofIan Smith,but was not internationally recognized as an independent state (asZimbabwe) until 1980, when black nationalists gained power after abitter guerrilla war.Although South Africa was one of the first African countries to gain independence, the state remained under the control of the country's white minority, initially through qualified voting rights and from 1956 by a system ofracial segregationknown asapartheid,until 1994.
Post-colonial Africa
Today, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries.[136]Since independence, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and authoritarianism. The vast majority of African states are republics that operate under some form of thepresidential systemof rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain democratic governments on a permanent basis—per the criteria laid out by Lührmann et al. (2018), onlyBotswanaandMauritiushave been consistently democratic for the entirety of their post-colonial history. Most African countries have experienced severalcoupsor periods ofmilitary dictatorship.Between 1990 and 2018, though, the continent as a whole has trended towards more democratic governance.[137]
Upon independence an overwhelming majority of Africans lived inextreme poverty.The continent suffered from the lack of infrastructural or industrial development undercolonialrule, along with political instability. With limited financial resources or access to global markets, relatively stable countries such asKenyastill experienced only very slow economic development. Only a handful of African countries succeeded in obtaining rapid economic growth prior to 1990. Exceptions include Libya and Equatorial Guinea, both of which possess large oil reserves.
Instability throughout the continent after decolonization resulted primarily frommarginalization of ethnic groups,andcorruption.In pursuit of personalpolitical gain,many leaders deliberately promoted ethnic conflicts, some of which had originated during the colonial period, such as from the grouping of multiple unrelated ethnic groups into a single colony, the splitting of a distinct ethnic group between multiple colonies, or existing conflicts being exacerbated by colonial rule (for instance, the preferential treatment given to ethnicHutusoverTutsisin Rwanda during German and Belgian rule).
Faced with increasingly frequent and severe violence, military rule was widely accepted by the population of many countries as means to maintain order, and during the 1970s and 1980s a majority of African countries were controlled bymilitary dictatorships.Territorial disputes between nations and rebellions by groups seeking independence were also common in independent African states. The most devastating of these was theNigerian Civil War,fought between government forces and anIgboseparatist republic,which resulted in a famine that killed 1–2 million people. Twocivil warsin Sudan,the firstlasting from 1955 to 1972 andthe secondfrom 1983 to 2005, collectively killed around 3 million. Both were fought primarily on ethnic and religious lines.
Cold Warconflicts between the United States and theSoviet Unionalso contributed to instability. Both the Soviet Union and the United States offered considerable incentives to African political and military leaders who aligned themselves with the superpowers' foreign policy. As an example, during theAngolan Civil War,the Soviet and Cuban alignedMPLAand the American alignedUNITAreceived the vast majority of their military and political support from these countries. Many African countries became highly dependent on foreign aid. The sudden loss of both Soviet and American aid at the end of the Cold War andfall of the USSRresulted in severe economic and political turmoil in the countries most dependent on foreign support.
There was amajor famine in Ethiopiabetween 1983 and 1985, killing up to 1.2 million people, which mosthistoriansattribute primarily to the forced relocation of farmworkers and seizure of grain by communistDerggovernment, further exacerbated by thecivil war.[138][139][140][141]In 1994 agenocide in Rwandaresulted in up to 800,000 deaths, added toa severe refugee crisisand fueled the rise of militia groups in neighboring countries. This contributed to the outbreak of thefirstandsecondCongo Wars, which were the most devastating military conflicts in modern Africa, with up to 5.5 million deaths,[142]making it by far the deadliest conflict in modern African history and one of thecostliest wars in human history.[143]
-
An animated map shows the order ofindependence of African nations,1950–2011 -
Africa's wars and conflicts, 1980–96Major Wars/Conflict (>100,000 casualties)Minor Wars/ConflictOther Conflicts -
Political map of Africa in 2021
Various conflicts between various insurgent groups and governments continue. Since 2003 there has been an ongoingconflict in Darfur(Sudan) which peaked in intensity from 2003 to 2005 with notable spikes in violence in 2007 and 2013–15, killing around 300,000 people total. TheBoko Haram Insurgencyprimarily within Nigeria (with considerable fighting in Niger, Chad, and Cameroon as well) has killed around 350,000 people since 2009. Most African conflicts have been reduced to low-intensity conflicts as of 2022. However, theTigray Warfrom 2020 to 2022 killed an estimated 300,000–500,000 people, primarily due tofamine.
Overall though, violence across Africa has greatly declined in the 21st century, with the end of civil wars in Angola,Sierra Leone,andAlgeriain 2002,Liberiain 2003, andSudanandBurundiin 2005. The Second Congo War, which involved 9 countries and several insurgent groups, ended in 2003. This decline in violence coincided with many countries abandoning communist-style command economies and opening up for market reforms, which over the course of the 1990s and 2000s promoted the establishment of permanent, peaceful trade between neighboring countries (seeCapitalist peace).
Improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from China,[144]which further spurred economic growth. Between 2000 and 2014, annual GDP growth in sub-Saharan Africa averaged 5.02%, doubling its total GDP from $811 billion to $1.63 trillion (constant 2015USD).[145]North Africa experienced comparable growth rates.[146]A significant part of this growth can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone.[147]While several individual countries have maintained high growth rates, since 2014 overall growth has considerably slowed, primarily as a result of falling commodity prices, continued lack ofindustrialization,and epidemics ofEbolaandCOVID-19.[148][149]
Geology, geography, ecology, and environment
Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largestlandmassof the Earth. Separated from Europe by theMediterranean Sea,it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by theIsthmus of Suez(transected by theSuez Canal), 163 km (101 mi) wide.[150]Geopolitically,Egypt'sSinai Peninsulaeast of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa as well.[151]
The coastline is 26,000 km (16,000 mi) long, and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe, which covers only 10,400,000 km2(4,000,000 sq mi) – about a third of the surface of Africa – has a coastline of 32,000 km (20,000 mi).[152]From the most northerly point,Ras ben Sakkain Tunisia (37°21' N), to the most southerly point,Cape Agulhasin South Africa (34°51'15 "S), is a distance of approximately 8,000 km (5,000 mi).[153]Cape Verde,17°33'22 "W, the westernmost point, is a distance of approximately 7,400 km (4,600 mi) toRas Hafun,51°27'52 "E, the most easterly projection that neighboursCape Guardafui,the tip of the Horn of Africa.[152]
Africa's largest country is Algeria, and its smallest country isSeychelles,anarchipelagooff the east coast.[154]The smallest nation on the continental mainland isThe Gambia.
African plate
TheAfrican Plate,also known as the Nubian Plate, is amajor tectonic platethat includes much of thecontinentof Africa (except for itseasternmost part) and the adjacent oceanic crust to the west and south. It is bounded by theNorth American PlateandSouth American Plateto the west (separated by theMid-Atlantic Ridge); theArabian PlateandSomali Plateto the east; theEurasian Plate,Aegean Sea PlateandAnatolian Plateto the north; and theAntarctic Plateto the south.
Between60million years agoand10million years ago,theSomali Platebeganriftingfrom the African Plate along theEast African Rift.[155]Since the continent of Africa consists of crust from both the African and the Somali plates, some literature refers to the African Plate as theNubian Plateto distinguish it from the continent as a whole.[156]Climate
The climate of Africa ranges fromtropicaltosubarcticon its highest peaks. Its northern half is primarilydesert,orarid,while its central and southern areas contain bothsavannaplains and densejungle(rainforest) regions. In between, there is a convergence, where vegetation patterns such assahelandsteppedominate. Africa is the hottest continent on Earth and 60% of the entire land surface consists of drylands and deserts.[157]The record for the highest-ever recorded temperature, inLibyain 1922 (58 °C (136 °F)), was discredited in 2013.[158][159]
Climate change
Climate change in Africais an increasingly serious threat as Africa is among the mostvulnerablecontinents to theeffects of climate change.[160][161][162]Some sources even classify Africa as "the most vulnerable continent on Earth".[163][164]Climate changeandclimate variabilitywill likely reduceagricultural production,food securityandwater security.[165]As a result, there will be negative consequences on people's lives andsustainable developmentin Africa.[161]
Over the coming decades, warming from climate change is expected across almost all the Earth's surface, and global mean rainfall will increase.[166]Currently, Africa is warming faster than the rest of the world on average. Large portions of the continent may become uninhabitable as a result of the rapid effects of climate change, which would have disastrous effects on human health, food security, and poverty.[167][168][169]Regional effects on rainfall in the tropics are expected to be much more spatially variable. The direction of change at any one location is often less certain.Ecology and biodiversity
Africa has over 3,000protected areas,with 198 marine protected areas, 50 biosphere reserves, and 80 wetlands reserves. Significant habitat destruction, increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa's biological diversity andarable land.Human encroachment, civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threaten biodiversity in Africa. This has been exacerbated by administrative problems, inadequate personnel and funding problems.[157]
Deforestationis affecting Africa at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).[170]According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 31% of Africa's pasture lands and 19% of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded, and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest per year, which is twice the average deforestation rate for the rest of the world.[157]Some sources claim that approximately 90% of the original, virgin forests in West Africa have been destroyed.[171]Over 90% ofMadagascar's original forests have been destroyed since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago.[172]About 65% of Africa's agricultural land suffers fromsoil degradation.[173]
Fauna
Africa boasts perhaps the world's largest combination of density and "range of freedom" ofwild animalpopulations and diversity, with wild populations of largecarnivores(such as lions,hyenas,and cheetahs) andherbivores(such asbuffalo,elephants, camels, and giraffes) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains. It is also home to a variety of "jungle" animals including snakes andprimatesandaquatic lifesuch as crocodiles andamphibians.In addition, Africa has the largest number ofmegafaunaspecies, as it was least affected by theextinction of the Pleistocene megafauna.
Environmental issues
Infrastructure
Water resources
Water development andmanagementare complex in Africa due to the multiplicity of trans-boundary water resources (rivers,lakesandaquifers).[176]Around 75% of sub-Saharan Africa falls within 53 internationalriver basincatchments that traverse multiple borders.[177][176]This particular constraint can also be converted into an opportunity if the potential for trans-boundary cooperation is harnessed in the development of the area's water resources.[176]A multi-sectoral analysis of theZambezi River,for example, shows thatripariancooperation could lead to a 23% increase in firm energy production without any additional investments.[177][176]A number of institutional and legal frameworks for transboundary cooperation exist, such as the Zambezi River Authority, theSouthern African Development Community(SADC) Protocol,Volta River Authorityand theNile Basin Commission.[176]However, additional efforts are required to further develop political will, as well as the financial capacities and institutional frameworks needed for win-win multilateral cooperative actions and optimal solutions for all riparians.[176]
Politics
African Union
Northern Region,Southern Region,Eastern Region,Western Regions A and B,Central Region
TheAfrican Union(AU) is acontinental unionconsisting of 55member states.The union was formed, withAddis Ababa,Ethiopia, as its headquarters, on 26 June 2001. The union was officially established on 9 July 2002[178]as a successor to theOrganisation of African Unity(OAU). In July 2004, the African Union'sPan-African Parliament(PAP) was relocated toMidrand,in South Africa, but theAfrican Commission on Human and Peoples' Rightsremained in Addis Ababa.
The African Union, not to be confused with theAU Commission,is formed by theConstitutive Act of the African Union,which aims to transform theAfrican Economic Community,a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as theAfrican Union Government,consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of thePan-African Parliament.A person becomes AU President by being elected to the PAP, and subsequently gaining majority support in the PAP. The powers and authority of the President of the African Parliament derive from the Constitutive Act and theProtocol of the Pan-African Parliament,as well as the inheritance of presidential authority stipulated by African treaties and by international treaties, including those subordinating the Secretary General of theOAUSecretariat (AU Commission) to the PAP. The government of the AU consists of all-union, regional, state, and municipal authorities, as well as hundreds of institutions, that together manage the day-to-day affairs of the institution.
Extensivehuman rights abusesstill occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include theDemocratic Republic of the Congo,Sierra Leone,Liberia,Sudan,Zimbabwe,andIvory Coast.
Boundary conflicts
Economy
Although it has abundantnatural resources,Africa remains the world's poorest andleast-developedcontinent (other thanAntarctica), the result of a variety of causes that may includecorrupt governmentsthat have often committed serioushuman rights violations,failedcentral planning,high levels ofilliteracy,low self-esteem, lack of access to foreign capital, legacies of colonialism, theslavetrade, and the Cold War, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging fromguerrilla warfaretogenocide).[182]Its total nominal GDP remains behind that of the United States, China, Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom, India and France. According to the United Nations' Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 24 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African.[183]
Poverty,illiteracy,malnutritionand inadequatewater supply and sanitation,as well as poor health, affect a large proportion of the people who reside in the African continent. In August 2008, theWorld Bank[184]announced revised global poverty estimates based on a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day (versus the previous measure of $1.00). Eighty-one percent of thesub-Saharan Africanpopulation was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) per day in 2005, compared with 86% for India.[185]
Sub-Saharan Africa is the least successful region of the world in reducing poverty ($1.25 per day); some 50% ofthe population living in povertyin 1981 (200 million people), a figure that rose to 58% in 1996 before dropping to 50% in 2005 (380 million people). The average poor person in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to live on only 70 cents per day, and was poorer in 2003 than in 1973,[186]indicating increasing poverty in some areas. Some of it is attributed to unsuccessful economic liberalization programmes spearheaded by foreign companies and governments, but other studies have cited bad domestic government policies more than external factors.[187][188]
Africa is now at risk of being in debt once again, particularly in sub-Saharan African countries. The last debtcrisisin 2005 was resolved with help from the heavily indebted poor countries scheme (HIPC). The HIPC resulted in some positive and negative effects on the economy in Africa. About ten years after the 2005 debt crisis in sub-Saharan Africa was resolved, Zambia fell back into debt. A small reason was due to the fall in copper prices in 2011, but the bigger reason was that a large amount of the money Zambia borrowed was wasted or pocketed by the elite.[189]
From 1995 to 2005, Africa's rate of economic growth increased, averaging 5% in 2005. Some countries experienced still higher growth rates, notablyAngola,SudanandEquatorial Guinea,all of which had recently begun extracting their petroleum reserves or had expanded theiroil extractioncapacity.
In a recently published analysis based onWorld Values Surveydata, the Austrian political scientist Arno Tausch maintained that several African countries, most notablyGhana,perform quite well on scales of mass support for democracy and themarket economy.[190]The following table is projection(s) as of 2024 in terms of the peak level of GDP (nominal) and (Purchasing Power Parity) by theIMF[191]and theWorld Bank.
| Rank | Country | GDP(nominal, Peak Year) millions ofUSD |
Peak Year |
|---|---|---|---|
| — |  African Union |
2,980,015 | 2022 |
| 1 |  Nigeria[192] |
574,184 | 2014 |
| 2 |  Egypt[193] |
476,748 | 2022 |
| 3 |  South Africa |
458,708 | 2011 |
| 4 |  Algeria |
266,780 | 2024 |
| 5 |  Ethiopia |
205,130 | 2024 |
| 6 |  Morocco |
152,377 | 2024 |
| 7 |  Angola |
145,712 | 2014 |
| 8 |  Kenya |
113,701 | 2022 |
| 9 |  Libya[194] |
92,542 | 2012 |
| 10 |  Côte d'Ivoire |
86,911 | 2024 |
| Rank | Country | GDP(PPP, Peak Year) millions ofUSD |
Peak Year |
|---|---|---|---|
| — | African Union |
9,490,335 | 2024 |
| 1 | Egypt |
1,898,538 | 2024 |
| 2 | Nigeria |
1,443,708 | 2024 |
| 3 | South Africa |
1,025,930 | 2024 |
| 4 | Algeria |
768,521 | 2024 |
| 5 | Ethiopia |
431,688 | 2024 |
| 6 | Morocco |
409,073 | 2024 |
| 7 | Kenya |
365,854 | 2024 |
| 8 | Angola |
270,981 | 2024 |
| 9 |  Tanzania |
244,363 | 2024 |
| 10 |  Ghana |
241,450 | 2024 |
Tausch's global value comparison based on theWorld Values Surveyderived the following factor analytical scales: 1. The non-violent and law-abiding society 2. Democracy movement 3. Climate of personal non-violence 4. Trust in institutions 5. Happiness, good health 6. No redistributive religious fundamentalism 7. Accepting the market 8. Feminism 9. Involvement in politics 10. Optimism and engagement 11. No welfare mentality, acceptancy of the Calvinist work ethics. The spread in the performance of African countries with complete data, Tausch concluded "is really amazing". While one should be especially hopeful about the development of future democracy and the market economy inGhana,the article suggests pessimistic tendencies forEgyptandAlgeria,and especially for Africa's leading economy, South Africa. HighHuman Inequality,as measured by theUNDP'sHuman Development Report'sIndex of Human Inequality,further impairs the development ofhuman security.Tausch also maintains that the certain recent optimism, corresponding to economic and human rights data, emerging from Africa, is reflected in the development of acivil society.
The continent is believed to hold 90% of the world'scobalt,90% of itsplatinum,50% of its gold, 98% of itschromium,70% of itstantalite,[195]64% of itsmanganeseand one-third of itsuranium.[196]TheDemocratic Republic of the Congo(DRC) has 70% of the world'scoltan,a mineral used in the production oftantalum capacitorsfor electronic devices such as cell phones. The DRC also has more than 30% of the world's diamond reserves.[197]Guineais the world's largest exporter ofbauxite.[198]As the growth in Africa has been driven mainly by services and not manufacturing or agriculture, it has been growth without jobs and without reduction in poverty levels. In fact, thefood security crisis of 2008which took place on the heels of the global financial crisis pushed 100 million people into food insecurity.[199]
In recent years, theChinahas built increasingly stronger ties with African nations and is Africa's largest trading partner. In 2007, Chinese companies invested a total of US$1 billion in Africa.[144]
AHarvard Universitystudy led by professorCalestous Jumashowed that Africa could feed itself by making the transition from importer to self-sufficiency. "African agriculture is at the crossroads; we have come to the end of a century of policies that favoured Africa's export of raw materials and importation of food. Africa is starting to focus on agricultural innovation as its new engine for regional trade and prosperity."[200]
Electricity generation
The main source ofelectricityishydropower,which contributes significantly to the current installed capacity for energy.[176]TheKainji Damis a typical hydropower resource generating electricity for all the large cities inNigeriaas well as their neighbouring country,Niger.[201]Hence, the continuous investment in the last decade, which has increased the amount of power generated.[176]
Demographics
Proportion of total African population by country
Africa's population has rapidly increased over the last 40 years, and is consequently relatively young. In some African states, more than half the population is under 25 years of age.[202]The total number of people in Africa increased from 229 million in 1950 to 630 million in 1990.[203]As of 2021, the population of Africa is estimated at 1.4 billion.[1][2]Africa's total population surpassing other continents is fairly recent; African population surpassed Europe in the 1990s, while the Americas was overtaken sometime around the year 2000.[204]This increase in number of babies born in Africa compared to the rest of the world is expected to reach approximately 37% in the year 2050; while in 1990 sub-Saharan Africa accounted for only 16% of the world's births.[205]
Thetotal fertility rate(children per woman) for Sub-Saharan Africa is 4.7 as of 2018, the highest in the world.[206]All countries in sub-Saharan Africa hadTFRs(average number of children) above replacement level in 2019 and accounted for 27.1% ofgloballivebirths.[207]In 2021, sub-Saharan Africa accounted for 29% of global births.[208]
Speakers ofBantu languages(part of theNiger–Congofamily) are the majority in southern, central and southeast Africa. The Bantu-speaking peoples fromthe Sahelprogressively expanded over most of sub-Saharan Africa.[209]But there are also severalNiloticgroups inSouth Sudanand East Africa, the mixedSwahili peopleon theSwahili Coast,and a few remainingindigenousKhoisan ( "San "or "Bushmen" ) andPygmy peoplesin Southern and Central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon. In theKalahari Desertof Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "Hottentots") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa.[citation needed]Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa.[210]
The peoples of West Africa primarily speakNiger–Congo languages,belonging mostly to its non-Bantu branches, though someNilo-Saharanand Afro-Asiatic speaking groups are also found. The Niger–Congo-speakingYoruba,Igbo,Fulani,Akan,andWolofethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sahara,MandinkaorMandegroups are most significant. Chadic-speaking groups, including theHausa,are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara, and Nilo-Saharan communities, such as theSonghai,KanuriandZarma,are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa.
| Map of Africa indicatingHuman Development Index(2018). | ||
|
The peoples of North Africa consist of three main indigenous groups: Berbers in the northwest, Egyptians in the northeast, and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century CE introduced the Arabic language and Islam to North Africa. The SemiticPhoenicians(who foundedCarthage) andHyksos,the Indo-IranianAlans,the Indo-EuropeanGreeks,Romans, andVandalssettled in North Africa as well. Significant Berber communities remain withinMoroccoandAlgeriain the 21st century, while, to a lesser extent, Berber speakers are also present in some regions of Tunisia and Libya.[211]The Berber-speakingTuaregand other often-nomadicpeoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. In Mauritania, there is a small but near-extinct Berber community in the north and Niger–Congo-speaking peoples in the south, though in both regions Arabic and Arab culture predominates. In Sudan, although Arabic and Arab culture predominate, it is mostly inhabited by groups that originally spoke Nilo-Saharan, such as the Nubians, Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa, who, over the centuries, have variously intermixed with migrants from the Arabian peninsula. Small communities of Afro-Asiatic-speaking Beja nomads can also be found in Egypt and Sudan.[212]
In theHorn of Africa,some Ethiopian and Eritrean groups (like theAmharaandTigrayans,collectively known asHabesha) speak languages from theSemiticbranch of theAfro-Asiaticlanguage family, while theOromoandSomalispeak languages from theCushiticbranch of Afro-Asiatic.
Prior to thedecolonizationmovements of the post-World War II era,Europeanswere represented in every part of Africa.[213]Decolonization during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass emigration of white settlers—especially from Algeria and Morocco (1.6 millionpieds-noirsin North Africa),[214]Kenya, Congo,[215]Rhodesia, Mozambique and Angola.[216]Between 1975 and 1977, over a million colonials returned to Portugal alone.[217]Nevertheless,white Africansremain an important minority in many African states, particularlyZimbabwe,Namibia,Réunion,andSouth Africa.[218]The country with the largest white African population is South Africa.[219]DutchandBritishdiasporasrepresent the largest communities of European ancestry on the continent today.[220]
European colonization also brought sizable groups ofAsians,particularly from theIndian subcontinent,to British colonies. LargeIndian communitiesare found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and southeast African countries. The largeIndian community in Ugandawasexpelledby the dictatorIdi Aminin 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the Indian Ocean are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. TheMalagasy peopleof Madagascar are anAustronesian people,but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa asCape Coloureds(people with origins in two or more races and continents). During the 20th century, small but economically important communities ofLebaneseandChinese[144]have also developed in the larger coastal cities ofWestand East Africa, respectively.[221]
Alternative Estimates of African Population, 1–2018 AD (in thousands)
Source: Maddison and others. (University of Groningen).[222]
| Year[222] | 1 | 1000 | 1500 | 1600 | 1700 | 1820 | 1870 | 1913 | 1950 | 1973 | 1998 | 2018 | 2100 (projected) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Africa | 16 500 | 33 000 | 46 000 | 55 000 | 61 000 | 74 208 | 90 466 | 124 697 | 228 342 | 387 645 | 759 954 | 1 321 000[223] | 3 924 421[224] |
| World | 230 820 | 268 273 | 437 818 | 555 828 | 603 410 | 1 041 092 | 1 270 014 | 1 791 020 | 2 524 531 | 3 913 482 | 5 907 680 | 7 500 000[225] | 10 349 323[224] |
Shares of Africa and World Population, 1–2020 AD (% of world total)
Source: Maddison and others (University of Groningen).[222]
| Year[222] | 1 | 1000 | 1500 | 1600 | 1700 | 1820 | 1870 | 1913 | 1950 | 1973 | 1998 | 2020 | 2100 (projected) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Africa | 7.1 | 12.3 | 10.5 | 9.9 | 10.1 | 7.1 | 7.1 | 7.0 | 9.0 | 9.9 | 12.9 | 18.2[223] | 39.4[226] |
Religion
While Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, the majority of the people respect African religions or parts of them. However, in formal surveys or census, most people will identify with major religions that came from outside the continent, mainly through colonisation. There are several reasons for this, the main one being the colonial idea that African religious beliefs and practices are not good enough. Religious beliefs and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by since they are often a sensitive topic for governments with mixed religious populations.[227][228]According to theWorld Book Encyclopedia,IslamandChristianityare the two largest religions in Africa. Islam is most prevalent in Northern Africa, and is the state religion of many North African countries, such as Algeria, where 99% of the population practices Islam.[229]The majority of people in most governments in Southern, Southeast, and Central Africa, as well as in a sizable portion of the Horn of Africa and West Africa, identify asChristians.TheCoptic Christiansconstitute a sizable minority inEgypt,and theEthiopian Orthodox Churchis the largest church in Ethiopia, with 36 million and 51 million adherents.[230]According toEncyclopædia Britannica,45% of the population are Christians, 40% are Muslims, and 10% followtraditional religions.[citation needed]A small number of Africans areHindu,Buddhist,Confucianist,Baháʼí,orJewish.There is also a minority of people in Africa who areirreligious.
Languages
By most estimates, well over a thousandlanguages(UNESCOhas estimated around two thousand) are spoken in Africa.[231]Most are of African origin, though some are of European or Asian origin. Africa is the mostmultilingualcontinent in the world, and it is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well.[further explanation needed]There are four major groups indigenous to Africa:
- TheAfroasiaticlanguages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout the Horn of Africa, North Africa, theSahel,and Southwest Asia.
- TheNilo-Saharanlanguages consist of a group of several possibly relatedfamilies,[232]spoken by 30 million people between 100 languages. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by ethnic groups inChad,Ethiopia,Kenya,Nigeria,Sudan,South Sudan,Uganda,and northernTanzania.
- TheNiger-Congolanguage family covers much of sub-Saharan Africa. In terms of number of languages, it is the largest language family in Africa and perhaps one of the largest in the world.
- TheKhoisanlanguages form a group of three unrelated[233]families and twoisolatesand number about fifty in total. They are mainly spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 400,000 people.[234]Many of the Khoisan languages areendangered.TheKhoiandSanpeoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa.
Following the end ofcolonialism,nearly all African countries adoptedofficial languagesthat originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such asSwahili,Yoruba,IgboandHausa). In numerous countries, English and French (seeAfrican French) are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. Arabic,Portuguese,Afrikaansand Spanish are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. Italian is spoken by some in formerItalian coloniesin Africa. German is spoken inNamibia,as it was a former German protectorate. In total, at least a fifth of Africans speak the former colonial languages.[235][236][237][d]
Health
over 15% 5–15% 2–5% 1–2% 0.5-1% 0.1–0.5% not available |
More than 85% of individuals in Africa use traditional medicine as an alternative to often expensive allopathic medical health care and costly pharmaceutical products. TheOrganization of African Unity(OAU) Heads of State and Government declared the 2000s decade as the African Decade onAfrican traditional medicinein an effort to promote The WHO African Region's adopted resolution for institutionalizing traditional medicine in health care systems across the continent.[238]Public policy makers in the region are challenged with consideration of the importance of traditional/indigenous health systems and whether their coexistence with the modern medical and health sub-sector would improve the equitability and accessibility of health care distribution, the health status of populations, and the social-economic development of nations within sub-Saharan Africa.[239]
AIDS in post-colonial Africais a prevalent issue. Although the continent is home to about 15.2 percent of the world's population,[240]more than two-thirds of the total infected worldwide—some 35 million people—were Africans, of whom 15 million have already died.[241]Sub-Saharan Africaalone accounted for an estimated 69 percent of all people living with HIV[242]and 70 percent of all AIDS deaths in 2011.[243]In the countries of sub-Saharan Africa most affected, AIDS has raised death rates and lowered life expectancy among adults between the ages of 20 and 49 by about twenty years.[241]Furthermore, the life expectancy in many parts of Africa has declined, largely as a result of the HIV/AIDS epidemic with life-expectancy in some countries reaching as low as thirty-four years.[244]
Culture
Some aspects of traditional African cultures have become less practised in recent years as a result of neglect and suppression by colonial and post-colonial regimes. For example, African customs were discouraged, and African languages were prohibited in mission schools.[245]Leopold II of Belgium attempted to "civilize" Africans by discouraging polygamy and witchcraft.[245]
Obidoh Freeborn posits that colonialism is one element that has created the character of modern African art.[246]According to authors Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole, "The precipitous alterations in the power structure wrought by colonialism were quickly followed by drastic iconographic changes in the art."[247]Fraser and Cole assert that, in Igboland, some art objects "lack the vigor and careful craftsmanship of the earlier art objects that served traditional functions."[247]Author Chika Okeke-Agulu states that "the racist infrastructure of British imperial enterprise forced upon the political and cultural guardians of empire a denial and suppression of an emergent sovereign Africa and modernist art."[248]Editors F. Abiola Irele and Simon Gikandi comment that the current identity of African literature had its genesis in the "traumatic encounter between Africa and Europe."[249]On the other hand, Mhoze Chikowero believes that Africans deployed music, dance, spirituality, and other performative cultures to (re)assert themselves as active agents and indigenous intellectuals, to unmake their colonial marginalization and reshape their own destinies.[250]
There is now a resurgence in the attempts to rediscover and revalue African traditional cultures, under such movements as theAfrican Renaissance,led byThabo Mbeki,Afrocentrism,led by a group of scholars, includingMolefi Asante,as well as the increasing recognition of traditional spiritualism through decriminalization ofVodouand other forms of spirituality.
As of March 2023, 98 African properties are listed byUNESCOasWorld Heritage Sites.Among these proprieties, 54 are cultural sites, 39 are natural sites and 5 are mixed sites. TheList Of World Heritage in Dangerincludes 15 African sites.[251]
Visual art
African artdescribes the modern and historical paintings, sculptures, installations, and othervisual culturefrom native or indigenousAfricansand theAfrican continent.The definition may also include the art of theAfrican diasporas,such as:African-American,Caribbeanor art inSouth Americansocieties inspired by African traditions. Despite this diversity, there are unifying artistic themes present when considering the totality of the visual culture from the continent of Africa.[252]
Pottery,metalwork,sculpture,architecture,textile artand fiber art are important visual art forms across Africa and may be included in the study of African art. The term "African art" does not usually include the art of theNorth Africanareas along theMediterraneancoast, as such areas had long been part of different traditions. For more than a millennium, the art of such areas had formed part ofBerberorIslamic art,although with many particular local characteristics.
Ethiopian art,with a longChristian tradition,[253]is also different from that of most of Africa, where theTraditional African religion(withIslamin the north) was dominant until the 20th century.[254]African art includesprehistoricandancientart, the Islamic art ofWest Africa,the Christian art ofEast Africa,and the traditionalartifactsof these and other regions. ManyAfrican sculptureswere historically made of wood and other natural materials that have not survived from earlier than a few centuries ago, although rare older pottery and metal figures can be found in some areas.[255]Some of the earliest decorative objects, such as shell beads and evidence of paint, have been discovered in Africa, dating to theMiddle Stone Age.[256][257][258]Masksare important elements in the art of many peoples, along with human figures, and are often highly stylized. There is a vast variety of styles, often varying within the same context of origin and depending on the use of the object, but wide regional trends are apparent; sculpture is most common among "groups of settled cultivators in the areas drained by theNigerandCongorivers "in West Africa.[259]Direct images of deities are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or were often made for ritual ceremonies. Since the late 19th century there has been an increasing amount ofAfrican art in Western collections,the finest pieces of which are displayed as part of the history of colonization.
African art has had an important influence on EuropeanModernistart,[260]which was inspired by their interest in abstract depiction. It was this appreciation of African sculpture that has been attributed to the very concept of "African art", as seen by European and American artists and art historians.[261]
West African cultures developed bronze casting for reliefs, like the famousBenin Bronzes,to decorate palaces and for highlynaturalisticroyal heads from around theBinitown ofBenin City, Edo State,as well as in terracotta or metal, from the 12th–14th centuries.Akan gold weightsare a form of small metal sculptures produced over the period 1400–1900; some representproverbs,contributing a narrative element rare in African sculpture; and royal regalia included gold sculptured elements.[262]Many West African figures are used in religious rituals and are often coated with materials placed on them for ceremonial offerings. TheMande-speaking peoples of the same region make pieces from wood with broad, flat surfaces and arms and legs shaped like cylinders. InCentral Africa,however, the main distinguishing characteristics include heart-shaped faces that are curved inward and display patterns of circles and dots.Architecture
Like other aspects of theculture of Africa,thearchitecture of Africais exceptionally diverse. Throughout thehistory of Africa,Africanshave developed their own localarchitecturaltraditions. In some cases, broader regional styles can be identified, such as theSudano-Sahelian architectureofWest Africa.A common theme in traditional African architecture is the use offractalscaling: small parts of the structure tend to look similar to larger parts, such as a circular village made of circular houses.[263]
African architecture in some areas has been influenced by external cultures for centuries, according to available evidence. Western architecture has influenced coastal areas since the late 15th century and is now an important source of inspiration for many larger buildings, particularly in major cities.
African architecture uses a wide range of materials, including thatch, stick/wood, mud,mudbrick,rammed earth,and stone. These material preferences vary by region: North Africa for stone and rammed earth, theHorn of Africafor stone and mortar, West Africa for mud/adobe, Central Africa for thatch/wood and more perishable materials, Southeast and Southern Africa for stone and thatch/wood.Cinema
Music
This articlemay requirecopy editingfor grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling.(April 2024) |
Dance
Sports
Fifty-four African countries havefootballteams in theConfederation of African Football.Egypt has won the African Cup seven times, and a record-making three times in a row. Cameroon, Nigeria, Morocco, Senegal, Ghana, and Algeria have advanced to the knockout stage of recentFIFA World Cups.Morocco made history at the2022 World Cup in Qataras the first African nation to reach the semi-finals of the FIFA Men's World Cup. South Africa hosted the2010 World Cup tournament,becoming the first African country to do so. The top clubs in each African football league play theCAF Champions League,while lower-ranked clubs compete inCAF Confederation Cup.
In recent years, the continent has made major progress in terms of state-of-the-artbasketballfacilities which have been built in cities as diverse asCairo,Dakar,Johannesburg,Kigali,LuandaandRades.[275]The number of African basketball players who drafted into theNBAhas experienced major growth in the 2010s.[276]
Cricketis popular in some African nations.South AfricaandZimbabwehaveTeststatus, whileKenyais the leading non-test team and previously hadOne-Day International cricket(ODI) status (from10 October 1997,until30 January 2014). The three countries jointly hosted the2003 Cricket World Cup.Namibiais the other African country to have played in a World Cup.Moroccoin northern Africa has also hosted the2002 Morocco Cup,but the national team has never qualified for a major tournament.
Rugbyis popular in several southern African nations.NamibiaandZimbabweboth have appeared on multiple occasions at theRugby World Cup,while South Africa is the most successful national team at the Rugby World Cup, having won the tournament on four occasions, in 1995, 2007, 2019, and 2023.[277]
Territories and regions
The countries in this table are categorized according to thescheme for geographic subregionsused by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated.
| Arms | Flag | Name of region[e]and territory, withflag |
Area (km2) |
Population[278] | Year | Density (per km2) |
Capital | Name(s) in official language(s) | ISO 3166-1 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| North Africa | |||||||||
|
|
Algeria | 2,381,740 | 46,731,000 | 2022 | 17.7 | Algiers | الجزائر (al-Jazāʾir)/Algérie | DZA |
|
|
Canary Islands(Spain)[f] | 7,492 | 2,154,905 | 2017 | 226 | Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife |
Canarias | IC |
|
|
Pelagie Islands(Italy) | 25.5 | 6,556 | 2019 | 247 | Lampedusa | Pelagie/Isole Pelagie/Ìsuli Pilaggî | ITA |
|
|
Ceuta(Spain)[g] | 20 | 85,107 | 2017 | 3,575 | — | Ceuta/Sebta/سَبْتَة (Sabtah) | EA |
|
|
Egypt[h] | 1,001,450 | 82,868,000 | 2012 | 83 | Cairo | مِصر (Miṣr) | EGY |
|
|
Libya | 1,759,540 | 6,310,434 | 2009 | 4 | Tripoli | ليبيا (Lībiyā) | LBY |
|
|
Madeira(Portugal)[i] | 797 | 245,000 | 2001 | 307 | Funchal | Madeira | PRT-30 |
|
|
Melilla(Spain)[j] | 12 | 85,116 | 2017 | 5,534 | — | Melilla/Mlilt/مليلية | EA |
|
|
Morocco | 446,550 | 35,740,000 | 2017 | 78 | Rabat | المغرب (al-maḡrib)/ⵍⵎⵖⵔⵉⴱ (lmeɣrib)/Maroc | MAR |
|
|
Sudan | 1,861,484 | 30,894,000 | 2008 | 17 | Khartoum | Sudan/السودان (as-Sūdān) | SDN |
|
|
Tunisia | 163,610 | 10,486,339 | 2009 | 64 | Tunis | تونس (Tūnis)/Tunest/Tunisie | TUN |
|
|
Western Sahara[k] | 266,000 | 405,210 | 2009 | 2 | El Aaiún | الصحراء الغربية (aṣ-Ṣaḥrā' al-Gharbiyyah)/Taneẓroft Tutrimt/Sáhara Occidental | ESH |
| East Africa | |||||||||
|
|
Burundi | 27,830 | 8,988,091 | 2009 | 323 | Gitega | Uburundi/Burundi/Burundi | BDI |
|
|
Comoros | 2,170 | 752,438 | 2009 | 347 | Moroni | Komori/Comores/جزر القمر (Juzur al-Qumur) | COM |
|
|
Djibouti | 23,000 | 828,324 | 2015 | 22 | Djibouti | Yibuuti/جيبوتي (Jībūtī)/Djibouti/Jabuuti | DJI |
|
|
Eritrea | 121,320 | 5,647,168 | 2009 | 47 | Asmara | Eritrea | ERI |
|
|
Ethiopia | 1,127,127 | 84,320,987 | 2012 | 75 | Addis Ababa | ኢትዮጵያ (Ītyōṗṗyā)/Itiyoophiyaa/ኢትዮጵያ/Itoophiyaa/Itoobiya/ኢትዮጵያ | ETH |
|
|
French Southern Territories(France) | 439,781 | 100 | 2019 | — | Saint Pierre | Terres australes et antarctiques françaises | FRA-TF |
|
|
Kenya | 582,650 | 39,002,772 | 2009 | 66 | Nairobi | Kenya | KEN |
|
|
Madagascar | 587,040 | 20,653,556 | 2009 | 35 | Antananarivo | Madagasikara/Madagascar | MDG |
|
|
Malawi | 118,480 | 14,268,711 | 2009 | 120 | Lilongwe | Malaŵi/Malaŵi | MWI |
|
|
Mauritius | 2,040 | 1,284,264 | 2009 | 630 | Port Louis | Mauritius/Maurice/Moris | MUS |
|
|
Mayotte(France) | 374 | 223,765 | 2009 | 490 | Mamoudzou | Mayotte/Maore/Maiôty | MYT |
|
|
Mozambique | 801,590 | 21,669,278 | 2009 | 27 | Maputo | Moçambique/Mozambiki/Msumbiji/Muzambhiki | MOZ |
|
|
Réunion(France) | 2,512 | 743,981 | 2002 | 296 | Saint Denis | La Réunion | FRA-RE |
|
|
Rwanda | 26,338 | 10,473,282 | 2009 | 398 | Kigali | Rwanda | RWA |
|
|
Seychelles | 455 | 87,476 | 2009 | 192 | Victoria | Seychelles/Sesel | SYC |
|
|
Somalia | 637,657 | 9,832,017 | 2009 | 15 | Mogadishu | 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖 (Soomaaliya) /الصومال (aṣ-Ṣūmāl) | SOM |
|
|
Somaliland | 176,120 | 5,708,180 | 2021 | 25 | Hargeisa | Soomaaliland/صوماليلاند (Ṣūmālīlānd) | |
|
|
South Sudan | 619,745 | 8,260,490 | 2008 | 13 | Juba | South Sudan | SSD |
|
|
Tanzania | 945,087 | 44,929,002 | 2009 | 43 | Dodoma | Tanzania/Tanzania | TZA |
|
|
Uganda | 236,040 | 32,369,558 | 2009 | 137 | Kampala | Uganda/Yuganda | UGA |
|
|
Zambia | 752,614 | 11,862,740 | 2009 | 16 | Lusaka | Zambia | ZMB |
|
|
Zimbabwe | 390,580 | 11,392,629 | 2009 | 29 | Harare | Zimbabwe | ZWE |
| Central Africa | |||||||||
|
|
Angola | 1,246,700 | 12,799,293 | 2009 | 10 | Luanda | Angola | AGO |
|
|
Cameroon | 475,440 | 18,879,301 | 2009 | 40 | Yaoundé | Cameroun/Kamerun | CMR |
|
|
Central African Republic | 622,984 | 4,511,488 | 2009 | 7 | Bangui | Ködörösêse tî Bêafrîka/République centrafricaine | CAF |
|
|
Chad | 1,284,000 | 10,329,208 | 2009 | 8 | N'Djamena | تشاد (Tšād)/Tchad | TCD |
|
|
Republic of the Congo | 342,000 | 4,012,809 | 2009 | 12 | Brazzaville | Congo/Kôngo/Kongó | COG |
|
|
Democratic Republic of the Congo | 2,345,410 | 69,575,000 | 2012 | 30 | Kinshasa | République démocratique du Congo | COD |
|
|
Equatorial Guinea | 28,051 | 633,441 | 2009 | 23 | Malabo | Guinea Ecuatorial/Guinée Équatoriale/Guiné Equatorial | GNQ |
|
|
Gabon | 267,667 | 1,514,993 | 2009 | 6 | Libreville | gabonaise | GAB |
|
|
São Tomé and Príncipe | 1,001 | 212,679 | 2009 | 212 | São Tomé | São Tomé e Príncipe | STP |
| Southern Africa | |||||||||
|
|
Botswana | 600,370 | 1,990,876 | 2009 | 3 | Gaborone | Botswana/Botswana | BWA |
|
|
Eswatini | 17,363 | 1,123,913 | 2009 | 65 | Mbabane | eSwatini/Eswatini | SWZ |
|
|
Lesotho | 30,355 | 2,130,819 | 2009 | 70 | Maseru | Lesotho/Lesotho | LSO |
|
|
Namibia | 825,418 | 2,108,665 | 2009 | 3 | Windhoek | Namibia | NAM |
|
|
South Africa | 1,219,912 | 51,770,560 | 2011 | 42 | Bloemfontein,Cape Town,Pretoria[l] | yaseNingizimu Afrika/yoMzantsi-Afrika/Suid-Afrika/Afrika-Borwa/Aforika Borwa/Afrika Borwa/Afrika Dzonga/yeNingizimu Afrika/Afurika Tshipembe/yeSewula Afrika | ZAF |
| West Africa | |||||||||
|
|
Benin | 112,620 | 8,791,832 | 2009 | 78 | Porto-Novo | Bénin | BEN |
|
|
Burkina Faso | 274,200 | 15,746,232 | 2009 | 57 | Ouagadougou | Burkina Faso | BFA |
|
|
Cape Verde | 4,033 | 429,474 | 2009 | 107 | Praia | Cabo Verde/Kabu Verdi | CPV |
|
|
The Gambia | 11,300 | 1,782,893 | 2009 | 158 | Banjul | The Gambia | GMB |
|
|
Ghana | 239,460 | 23,832,495 | 2009 | 100 | Accra | Ghana | GHA |
|
|
Guinea | 245,857 | 10,057,975 | 2009 | 41 | Conakry | Guinée | GIN |
|
|
Guinea-Bissau | 36,120 | 1,533,964 | 2009 | 43 | Bissau | Guiné-Bissau | GNB |
|
|
Ivory Coast | 322,460 | 20,617,068 | 2009 | 64 | Abidjan,[m]Yamoussoukro | Côte d'Ivoire | CIV |
|
|
Liberia | 111,370 | 3,441,790 | 2009 | 31 | Monrovia | Liberia | LBR |
|
|
Mali | 1,240,000 | 12,666,987 | 2009 | 10 | Bamako | Mali/Maali/مالي (Mālī)/𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Maali)/ߡߊߟߌ (Mali) | MLI |
|
|
Mauritania | 1,030,700 | 3,129,486 | 2009 | 3 | Nouakchott | موريتانيا (Mūrītānyā) | MRT |
|
|
Niger | 1,267,000 | 15,306,252 | 2009 | 12 | Niamey | Niger | NER |
|
|
Nigeria | 923,768 | 166,629,000 | 2012 | 180 | Abuja | Nigeria | NGA |
|
|
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha(United Kingdom) | 420 | 7,728 | 2012 | 13 | Jamestown | Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha | SHN |
|
|
Senegal | 196,190 | 13,711,597 | 2009 | 70 | Dakar | Sénégal | SEN |
|
|
Sierra Leone | 71,740 | 6,440,053 | 2009 | 90 | Freetown | Sierra Leone | SLE |
|
|
Togo | 56,785 | 6,019,877 | 2009 | 106 | Lomé | togolaise | TGO |
| Africa Total | 30,368,609 | 1,001,320,281 | 2009 | 33 | |||||
See also
Notes
- ^[19][20][21][22][23][24]
- ^Also known as the Partition of Africa, the Conquest of Africa, or the Rape of Africa.
- ^TheEgba United Government,a government of theEgba people,was legally recognised by the British as independent until being annexed into theColony and Protectorate of Nigeriain 1914.[129]
- ^The previous three references show that there a total of 130 million English speakers, 120 million French speakers, and over 30 million Portuguese speakers in Africa, making them about 20% of Africa's 2022 population of 1.4 billion people.
- ^Continental regions as perUN categorizations/map.
- ^The SpanishCanary Islands,of whichLas Palmas de Gran CanariaareSanta Cruz de Tenerifeare co-capitals, are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity toMoroccoandWestern Sahara;population and area figures are for 2001.
- ^The SpanishexclaveofCeutais surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.
- ^Egyptis generally considered atranscontinental countryin Northern Africa (UN region) and Western Asia; population and area figures are for African portion only, west of theSuez Canal.
- ^The PortugueseMadeira Islandsare often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to Morocco; population and area figures are for 2001.
- ^The SpanishexclaveofMelillais surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.
- ^The territory ofWestern Saharais claimed by theSahrawi Arab Democratic RepublicandMorocco.TheSADRis recognized as a sovereign state by theAfrican Union.Moroccoclaims the entirety of the country as itsSouthern Provinces.Morocco administers 4/5 of the territory while the SADR controls 1/5. Morocco's annexation of this territory has not been recognized internationally.
- ^Bloemfonteinis the judicial capital of South Africa, whileCape Townis its legislative seat, andPretoriais the country's administrative seat.
- ^Yamoussoukrois the official capital ofIvory Coast,whileAbidjanis thede factoseat.
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Further reading
- Asante, Molefi(2007).The History of Africa.US: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-77139-9.
- Clark, J. Desmond(1970).The Prehistory of Africa.London: Thames and Hudson.ISBN978-0-500-02069-2.
- Crowder, Michael (1978).The Story of Nigeria.London: Faber.ISBN978-0-571-04947-9.
- Davidson, Basil(1966).The African Past: Chronicles from Antiquity to Modern Times.Harmondsworth: Penguin.OCLC2016817.
- Gordon, April A.; Gordon, Donald L. (1996).Understanding Contemporary Africa.Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.ISBN978-1-55587-547-3.
- Khapoya, Vincent B. (1998).The African experience: an introduction.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.ISBN978-0-13-745852-3.
- Moore, Clark D., and Ann Dunbar (1968).Africa Yesterday and Today,in series,The George School Readings on Developing Lands.New York: Praeger Publishers.
- Naipaul, V.S.The Masque of Africa: Glimpses of African Belief.Picador, 2010.ISBN978-0-330-47205-0
- Wade, Lizzie (2015). "Drones and satellites spot lost civilizations in unlikely places".Science.doi:10.1126/science.aaa7864.
External links
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General information
- Africaweb resources provided by GovPubs at theUniversity of Colorado Boulder Libraries
- Africaat theEncyclopædia Britannica
- Africa: Human Geographyat theNational Geographic Society
- African & Middle Eastern Reading Roomfrom the United StatesLibrary of Congress
- Africa South of the SaharafromStanford University
- Aluka,digital library of scholarly resources from and about Africa
History
- The Story of AfricafromBBC World Service
- .Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 1 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 320–358.