Wikipedia

African American cinema

See also:Black film

African American cinemais loosely classified as films made by, for, or aboutBlack Americans.[1]Historically, African American films have been made with African-American casts and marketed to African-American audiences.[1]The production team and director were sometimes also African American.[2]More recently, Black films featuring multicultural casts aimed at multicultural audiences have also included American Blackness as an essential aspect of the storyline.[1][2][3]

Three Film Pioneers
Oscar Micheauxis considered the first major African-American feature filmmaker. He made his first film in 1919 and (44 films later) his last in 1948.
Maria P. Williamsis considered the first Black woman film producer for the 5-reel silent drama based on her own screenplay forFlames of Wrathin 1923.
Lester Waltonstarted writing film criticism in 1908 for the national mainstream Black newspaperNew York Age.His reviews and insights remain foundational for subsequent Black film literature.

Segregation, discrimination, issues of representation, derogatorystereotypesand tiredtropeshave dogged Black American cinema from the start of a century-plus history that roughly coincided with the century-plus history of American cinema.[4][5]From the very earliest days of moving pictures, major studios used Black actors to appeal to Black audiences while also often relegating them tobit parts,casting women as maids or nannies, and men as natives or servants[6]or either gender as a "magical negro,"an update on the"noble savage."

Black filmmakers, producers, critics and others have resisted narrow archetypes and offensive representation in many ways. As early as 1909,Lester A. Waltonthe arts critic forNew York Agewas making sophisticated arguments against the objectification of Black bodies onscreen, pointing out that "anti-Negro propaganda strikes at the very roots of the fundamental principles of democracy."[7]Noting the educational impact film could have, he also argued that it could be used to "emancipate the white American from his peculiar ideas," which were "hurtful to both races."[7]

The "race films" of 1915 to the mid-1950s followed a similar spirit of "racial uplift"and educational" counter-programing "with an eye to combating the racism of theJim Crowsouth.[8]That sensibility shifted markedly in the 1960s and '70s. AlthoughBlaxploitationfilms continued to include stereotypical characters, they were also praised for portraying Black people as the heroes and subjects of their own stories.[9]

By the 1980s,auteurslikeSpike LeeandJohn Singletoncreated nuanced depictions of Black lives, which led the way for later filmmakers likeJordan PeeleandAva DuVernayto use a range of genres (horror, history, documentary, fantasy) to explore Black lives from multiple perspectives.Ryan Coogler's 2018 blockbuster superhero filmBlack Pantherhas also been widely praised for creating a fully realized Afrocentric urban utopia of Black people that include a foundation myth, a legendary hero and takes "utter delight in its African-ness."[10]

History

edit

The short filmSomething Good – Negro Kisswas made in 1898. Early commercial films often depictedminstrel showsuntilvaudevilleacts overtook them in popularity.[3][11]An African American appeared innarrative filmat least as early as 1909, which is also the year thatSiegmund Lubinproduced the comedy series, using a Black cast, with the derogatory titleSambo.Before then, film roles for Black actors were played by white actors inblackface.[12]Sam Lucasbecame the first Black actor to be cast in a leading role in a mainstream film, appearing in the 1914 filmUncle Tom's Cabin.[5][13]ThePeter P. Jones Film Companywas established in Chicago and filmed vaudeville acts as well as the 1915National Half Century Exposition and Lincoln Jubilee.[citation needed]

William D. Foster'sThe Foster Photoplay Companyin Chicago was one of the earliest studios to feature African Americans.[14][15]Casts for its films included performers from stage shows atRobert T. Motts'Pekin Theatre.[citation needed]Theatre companies theLafayette PlayersandThe Ethiopian Art Theatrealso had several players who crossed over into filmmaking.[citation needed]REOL Productionswas a New York City studio that produced films in the early 1920s with actors from the Lafayette Players.[citation needed]During its relatively short existence REOL produced a couple of documentaries, comedies, and a feature film.[16]

Lincoln Motion Picture Companywas established inOmaha, Nebraskabefore relocating toLos Angeles,and was among the very first Black producers of African-American films.[17]Their mission statement was to "encourage black pride" with its "mostly family-oriented pictures."[17]The short-lived white-ownedEbony Film Corporation's was founded in 1915, but the white ownership's poor judgement about its stereotype-laden films aimed at both white and Black audiences led to a public outcry from Black audiences in the wake of divisive anger aboutThe Birth of a Nation.[18]The company shut its doors in 1919, as a result.[18]Norman Studios,founded in 1920 in Jacksonville, Florida, produced drama films with African American casts, even though Norman, himself, was white.[18]Between 1920 and 1928, however, he made a string of successful films, starring Black actors.[18]

Biographmade a series of comedy shorts with comedianBert Williams.[citation needed]

Documentary shorts (1909–1913)

edit

Some of the earliest African American films were later classified by scholars as "Uplift Cinema", referencing writer-educatorBooker T. Washington's influential uplift movement, which took shape atTuskegee Institute,an early Post Civil War teacher-training college in Alabama for newly freed slaves. Under his leadership, the college produced several documentary shorts, as a way to promote the institute and build support among the school's benefactors.[19]Their first promotional documentary was 1909'sA Trip to Tuskegee(1909) followed in 1913 byA Day at Tuskegee.[19]That same year,Samuel Chapman Armstrong's Post Civil WarHampton Institute,which focused on "manual labor and self-help,"[20]took a page from Washington's book and created its own narrative documentaryJohn Henry at Hampton: A Kind of Student Who Makes Good,specifically to appeal to Northern donors.[20][21]

Booker T. Washington's uplift movement led to Uplift Cinema, another way of describing Race Films. Photographed byFrances Benjamin Johnston,c. 1895.
A newspaper ad forThe Homesteader(1919) a lost black-and-white silent race film by filmmakerOscar Micheaux.

Race film (1915–1950s)

edit
See also:Race film

Beginning in 1915, and continuing on until the 1950s, African-American production companies partnered with independent film companies to create "race films,"a term that describes movies with African-American casts targeted at poor, and primarily Southern, African-American audiences by African-American producers working on much tighter budgets than their Hollywood rivals.[22]

Race films typically emphasized self-improvement and middle-class values, while also "foster[ing] an entire generation of independent African American filmmakers and helped establish a 'Black cinema' in America, an artform and system where Black directors were empowered to be independent — raising money, shooting and editing, and scoring films themselves."[8]Nearly 500 were made in the United States between 1915 and 1952, and most were shown in the southeastern United States where there were more theaters serving African Americans.[22][23]

Early stars of the genre included future Oscar winnerHattie McDanieland the actor, singer and political activistPaul Robeson,who would later beblacklistedduring theMcCarthyera. NovelistOscar Micheauxadapted one of his novels for his first filmThe Homesteader,in 1919, which is credited as one of the earliest race films. Micheaux's second filmWithin Our Gates,released in 1920, was like all race films, a response to racism, and in this case the racism inD. W. Griffith's divisive 1915 filmThe Birth of a Nation.[24]Micheaux would go on to write, produce and direct "forty-four feature-length films between 1919 and 1948," leading the Producers Guild of America to call him "The most prolific black — if not most prolific independent — filmmaker in American cinema."[25]

Talkies and musicals (1920s–1940s)

edit

Early filmmakers sometimes served in multiple roles as actor, director and producer.Spencer Williams,who later starred inAmos 'n' Andy,wrote and directed films.[citation needed]His Amegro Films produced the 1941 filmThe Blood of Jesus.[citation needed]Novelist-turned-filmmakerOscar Micheauxwho worked in silent film, and later became a prominent director and producer in talkies.[8]William D. Alexander,known for his government-sponsored newsreels aimed at African American audiences early in his career, also became an influential African-American filmmaker.[citation needed]

Poster advertisingThe Blood of Jesus,directed bySpencer WilliamsJr., which Time magazine called one of the 25 most important race films, and was later added to the U.S.National Film Registry.

Major distributors includedToddy PicturesCorporation, which acquired and re-released earlier films under new titles and advertising campaigns and, briefly,Million Dollar Productions,which featured a partnership with African American starRalph Cooper.[26][27]

Musical films captured various African-American acts and performers on film. Known assoundies,they were a precursor to music videos, which were often cut from them and then released between the years 1940 and 1946.[28]They featured an enormous range of musical styles and "cheesecake" performances, as well as musicians both white and Black, including singer, dancer and actressDorothy Dandridge,who would later become the first Black Oscar nominee for Best Actress.[29]Comic actorStepin Fetchitwho was the first Black actor to earn a million dollars, and is controversial for his demeaning portrayal of Black subservience, also appeared in them.[citation needed]Jazz trumpeterLouis Armstrong,who went on to make 20 feature films between the 1930s and 1960s, made soundies too.[30][31][32]

Other Black actors famous for their song-and-dance chops include tap dancer, singer and actorBill "Bojangles" Robinson,who also performed inShirley Templefilms.[33]Singer, dancer and actorLena Horne,often recognized for her rendition ofStormy Weatherin the 1943 musical of the same name, was also the first Black actress signed to a studio contract.[34]Among the most prominent early actress was Oscar winnerHattie McDanielwho won Best Supporting Actress for her role in the 1939 filmGone with the Wind.[35]

Civil Rights era

edit
Movie starSidney PoitierinA Raisin in the Sun,1959
Poster for the independent filmSweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song,1971

First movie star (1950s–1970s)

edit

In the 1950s and 60s,Sidney Poitierbecame a movie star and the first Black male actor to win the Oscar in a competitive race forLilies of the Field(1963), one of many acclaimed films in long filmography that includes an Oscar nod forThe Defiant Ones(1958), which emphasized racial harmony as a means to an end,In the Heat of the Night(1967), a crime drama that focused on the uneasy partnership that develops between a bigoted white Southern police chief (played byRod Steiger) whom Poitier famously slaps, andGuess Who's Coming to Dinner?(1967) a box office hit, co-starringSpencer TracyandKatharine Hepburnas the liberal parents of Poitier's white fiancée, uneasy about their engagement.[36]In the early 1970s, Poitier turned to directing, only to later return to the screen to portrayThurgood MarshallinSeparate but Equal(1991) andNelson MandelainMandela and de Klerk(1997). In 2009, Poitier was awarded the U.S.Presidential Medal of Freedom.[37]

Blaxploitation (1971–1979)

edit
See also:Blaxploitation

Blaxploitation films are a subset ofexploitation films,a term derived from the film marketing term emphasizing the promotion of a brand-name star, a trending topic or titilliating subject matter — in short, a nearly surefire draw at the box office.[38]Both exploitation and blaxploitation films are low-budgetB-movies,designed to turn a profit.[39]

The 1970s Black variant sought to tell Black stories with Black actors to Black audiences, but they were usually not produced by African Americans. As Junius Griffin, the president of the Hollywood branch of theNAACP,wrote in aNew York Timesop-ed in 1972: "At present, Black movies are a 'rip off' enriching major white film producers and a very few black people."[40]

Directors in the Civil Rights Era
Film directorGordon Parksin 1963
DirectorIvan Dixonin 1967

Also considered exploitative because of the many stereotypes they relied on, Blaxploitation films typically took place in stereotypically urban environments, African-American characters were frequently charged with overcoming "The Man," which is to say white oppressors, and violence and sex often featured prominently.[38]Despite these tropes, Blaxploitation film was also recognized for portraying Black people as the heroes and subjects of their own stories, and for being the first genre of film to featurefunkandsoulmusic on theirsoundtracks.[41]

Two films, both released in 1971, are said to have invented the genre:Melvin Van Peebles'Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song,about a poor Black man fleeing the white police, and featuring a soundtrack byEarth, Wind & Firewas one. DirectorGordon Parks' criminal action movieShaft,featured a theme song that later won for theAcademy Award for Best Original Songfor the movie's theme song, which later appeared onmultiple Top 100 lists,includingAFI's 100 Years...100 Songswas the other.[24]

Other notable films in the genre includeIvan Dixon's first feature film the 1972 thrillerTrouble Man,which featured a soundtrack byMarvin Gaye;andBill Gunn's 1973 experimental horror filmGanja & Hess,later remade bySpike Leein 2014 asDa Sweet Blood of Jesus.[24]

If Van Peebles and Parks' films made the genre's quintessential films, thenPam Grierwas the genre's quintessential actress. Later described by directorQuentin Tarantinoas cinema's first female action star, Grier was "part of a small group of women who defined the genre", going from bit parts in films such as the satirical melodramaBeyond the Valley of the Dollsto featured roles in movies such as 1973's horror filmScream Blacula Screamand 1973'sCoffy,in which she played a vengeful nurse.[42]

L.A. Rebellion (1960s–1980s)

edit
Film directorJulie Dashin 2020

TheL.A. Rebellionfilm movement, also known as the "Los Angeles School of Black Filmmakers", or the UCLA Rebellion, refers to several dozen young African and African-American filmmakers who studied atUCLAFilm School for the 20-year span between the late 1960s to the late 1980s, who went on to create independent Blackart housefilm to provides an alternative toclassical Hollywood cinema.[43]

Typically featuring working-class protagonists from communities in need, films such as Charles Burnett's 1978 featureKiller of Sheephave been hailed as a landmark, though until recently many have been hard to find.[44]Julie Dash's 1991Daughters of the Dust,on the other hand, was the first full-length feature directed by a Black woman that was distributed nation-wide.[45]

Both films are informed by the greater context of the L.A. Rebellion's early days: Adamantly anti-Hollywood, and committed to storytelling based on authentic experience, the L.A. Rebellion was formed soon after the 1965 Watts riots, unrest after a 1969 shoot-out on the UCLA campus, anti-Vietnam andBlack Power Movementstruggles, which led several students to persuade the university to "launch an ethnographic studies programme responsive to local communities of colour.... The films that followed... were forged in solidarity with anti-colonial movements from around the world, such as Brazil'sCinema Novoand the ArgentinianGrupo Cine Liberación."[43][46]

Although most films like Burnett's were never widely seen, a resurgence of interest in the radical filmmaking movement led to a 2011 retrospective at the UCLA Hammar Museum, a 2015 retrospective at theTate Modern,and a 2015 book published by UCLA calledL.A. Rebellion: Creating a New Black Cinema.[47][46][43][48]

Contemporary

edit
See also:AfrofuturismandHood film

Cult classics (1980s)

edit
DirectorSpike Leein 2007

In between the music and the drama, 1980s film was frequently comic, launching Eddie Murphy's blockbuster film career. In 1987, actor, comedian, and directorRobert Townsend's 1987 filmHollywood Shuffle,satirized the Hollywood film industry and its treatment of African Americans and created a buzz.[49]In 1982, Eddie Murphy made the buddy comedy48 Hrs,whichThe New York Timescalled "positively witty".[50]In 1983, he made another hit inTrading PlaceswithDan Aykroyd.[51]

In 1984, already a proven box-office draw, Murphy leftSaturday Night Live,and launched a successful full-time career, with his first solo leading role inBeverly Hills Cop,which went on to have two sequels.[52]In 1988, he made the silly romantic comedyComing to America(which led to the less well-received sequelComing 2 Americain 2021), and in 1989 he made the comedy-drama crime filmHarlem Nights,starring as part of a multi-generational comedy team that included legendary stand-upsRichard PryorandRedd Foxx.[53]

In 1984,Prince's rock musical dramaPurple Rain,which featured an Oscar-winning soundtrack, as well as an album by the same name launched him as a superstar. In full-time filmmaking 1986 black-and-white comedy dramaShe's Gotta Have Itlaunched Spike Lee into a three-decade plus career and counting. More than 20 years later, his first film was relaunched and reimagined as a two-season 2016 TV series by the same name.[53]Lee ended the decade with 1989'sDo the Right Thing,whose story exploring racial tension and simmering violence earned him both critical and commercial accolades, and may still be his most famous film.[53]

1980s-2000s

edit
Matinee idolDenzel Washingtonin 1990
DirectorCheryl Dunyein 2016

The late 1980s also marked the rise of actorDenzel Washington.He portrayed political activistSteve Bikoin the 1987 filmCry Freedom,the title role In Spike Lee's 1992Malcolm Xand several other iconic figures. His wonBest Supporting Actorfor playing doomedUnionArmy soldier in the historical dramaGlory(1989).[54]Washington would go on to win 17NAACP Image Awards,three Golden Globes, on Tony Award and a second Academy Award in 2001 for playing the corrupt detective inAntoine Fuqua's thrillerTraining Day.[54]

In 2020,The New York Timesranked him as the greatest actor of the twenty-first century. In 2002, Washington made his directorial debut with the biographical filmAntwone Fisher.His second directorial effort wasThe Great Debaters(2007). His third film,Fences(2016), in which he also starred, was nominated for theAcademy Award for Best Picture.[citation needed]

Breakthrough years (1990s)

edit

TheGuardiannewspaper's Steve Rose noted in 2016 that "The late 80s and 90s [also] heralded a breakthrough led bySpike Lee'sDo the Right ThingandJohn Singleton'sBoyz n the Hood."[55]IndieWire calls the 1990s, in particular, "a period that witnessed a historic number of films made by African American directors who forever altered what we thought of as" black aesthetics "and who created touchstone works that continue to inspire contemporary filmmakers," creditingJohn Singleton'sBoyz n the Hood(1991), which explores the challenges of ghetto life,Julie Dash'sDaughters of the Dustabout three generations ofGullah(1991),Kasi Lemmons'Eve's Bayouabout the repercussions of a parent's affair andCheryl Dunye's romantic dramedyWatermelon Woman(1996) as groundbreakers for their ambition and diversity of genre and style.[56]Many also praise Spike Lee'sMalcolm X(1992) as the biopic of the decade for its complexity and its frank politics, which began the film with a videotape of the brutal police beating ofRodney King,which sparked off the 1992 Los Angeles riots.[55][57]

Auteurs and Oscars (2000s–present)

edit

Spike Leehas built a body of work that predominantly uses Black casts, and tends to explore socio-political themes that range from women's sexual liberation inShe's Gotta Have It(1986) to hate groups in the Oscar-winningBlack Kkklansman(2018) more than 20 years later. Where Lee is squarely political, other contemporary filmmakers nowadays rely on political subtext hidden in plain sight.Jordan Peele's blockbuster horror filmGet Out(2017) was also interpreted as a parable of Black dystopia, andRyan Coogler's blockbusterBlack Panther(2018) was interpreted as a model of Black utopia.[citation needed]

African-American women and African-American gay and lesbian women have also made advances directing films, inRadha Blank's comicThe 40-Year-Old Version(2020),Ava DuVernay'sfanciful rendition of the children's classicA Wrinkle in Time[1][58]orAngela Robinson's short filmD.E.B.S.(2003) turned feature-length adaptation in 2004.

DirectorJordan Peelein 2019
DirectorTyler Perryin 2016

DirectorTim Storyis best known for comedies such asBarbershop(2002), the superhero filmFantastic Four(2005) andRide Along,a buddy comedy franchise. He has been nominated for twoNAACP Image Awardsfor Outstanding Directing in a Feature Film/Television Movie in2006and 2013.[citation needed]

Hollywood South

edit

In the early 2000s, prolific Black filmmakerTyler Perrybegan making movies. The films are often loathed by critics,[59]and beloved by audiences. They mostly target Black audiences with slapstick farces that have earned him a loyal following and helped him build his Atlanta-based movie studio.[60]Forbes describesTyler Perryin a headline that says: "From 'Poor as Hell' to Billionaire: How Tyler Perry Changed Show Business Forever."[60]"In 2007, the film industry spent $93 million on productions in Georgia. In 2016, it spent over $2 billion."[61][62]He was awarded theJean Hersholt Humanitarian Awardat the 2021 Oscars ceremony, recognizing him as an "individual in the motion picture industry whose humanitarian efforts have brought credit to the industry," both for his personal generosity and his ingenuity, which extended to creating a "Camp Quarantine" to keep industry regulars employed during the Pandemic.[59][63]

Controversies and criticism

edit

Awards shows and membership in film associations have been criticized for largely excluding people of color, as have several recent films. Cultural criticWesley MorrisdescribedThe Help(2011) as "an owner's manual," noting that "[t]he best film roles three Black women will have all year require one of them to cleanRon Howard's daughter's house.[64]Earlier films likeThe Green Mile(1999) andThe Legend of Bagger Vance(2000), where a Black character's sole function was to help white people, were similarly criticized.[citation needed]

edit

(Selection was limited by availability.)

  • Dorothy Dandridge(1922–1965), pictured in 1962, is the first BlackBest ActressOscar nominee for her role in 1954'sCarmen JoneswithHarry Belafonte.
  • Herb Jeffries(1913–2014), pictured in 1944, debuted in 1937'sHarlem on the Prairie,as the first Blacksinging cowboyin the first BlackWesterntalkie with an all-Black cast.
  • Sam Lucas(1848–1916), pictured in 1902, was the first Black man to portray the role ofUncle Tomon stage and screen.
  • Hattie McDaniel(1893–1952), pictured in 1939, was the first Black individual and the first woman to win the Oscar for her role inGone with the Wind.
  • Oscar Micheaux(1884–1951) was both writer, director and the first major Black filmmaker who made more than 40 films, including adaptations from his own novels.
  • Stepin Fetchit,né Lincoln Perry (1902–1985), pictured in 1959, both criticized as a stereotype and praised as an archetype, was the first Black actor to earn $1 million.
  • Sidney Poitier(1927–2022), pictured in 1963, was the first Black movie star and the first Black male winner of theAcademy Award for Best Actorin 1964.
  • Bill "Bojangles" Robinson(1878–1949), pictured in 1946, was an American tap dancer, actor, singer, perhaps best known today for hisShirley Templefilms. For the first half of the 20th century, however, he was the most highly paid Black American entertainer in America.
  • Lester Walton(1882–1965) was a journalist, sportswriter, civil rights activist, diplomat, composer and theater owner But it's his writing on Black representation in film that made him one of African America's earliest and most influential critics.
  • Bert Williams(1874–1922), pictured in 1922, the comedian, one of the most popular of his era, is credited as the first Black man to have the leading role in a film, in this case,Darktown Jubileein 1914.
  • Spencer Williams(1893–1969) was a groundbreaking actor-director-filmmaker. He portrayed Andy on theAmos 'n' AndyTV show (Alvin Childressis pictured with him above in 1952). He also directed the 1941 race filmThe Blood of Jesus.
  • Maria P. Williams(1866–1932) was a teacher, reporter, actor and screenwriter, but she is also credited as the first Black woman film producer for the five-reel silent crime drama based on her own screenplay,Flames of Wrathin 1923.[65]
edit

(Selection was limited by availability.)

See also:List of African-American actorsandList of Black Academy Award winners and nominees
  • Actors
  • Actor and two time Academy Award winner Mahershala Ali in 2019
  • Actress and Academy Award winner Halle Berry in 2017
  • Viola Davis is the most nominated Black actress in Oscar history and won in 2016.
  • Actress and Academy Award winner Ariana DeBose in 2022
  • Actor, comedian and Academy Award winner Jamie Foxx in 2013
  • Actor and Academy Award winner Morgan Freeman in 1998
  • Comedian, actress andEGOTwinner Whoopi Goldberg in 2008
  • Actor and Academy Award winner Cuba Gooding Jr. in 2000
  • Actor and Academy Award winner Louis Gossett Jr. in 1987
  • Actress and Academy Award winner Jennifer Hudson in 2011
  • Actor and Academy Award winner Daniel Kaluuya in 2017
  • Actress and Academy Award winner Regina King in 2018
  • Actress and Academy Award winner Hattie McDaniel in 1939
  • Actress and Academy Award winner Mo'Nique in 2010
  • Actress and Academy Award winner Lupita Nyong'o in 2017
  • Actor and Academy Award winner Sidney Poitier in 1968
  • Actor and Academy Award winner Will Smith in 2019
  • Actress and Academy Award winner Octavia Spencer in 2016
  • Actor and Academy Award winner Denzel Washington in 2018
  • Actor and Academy Award winner Forest Whitaker in 2017

Theorists, critics and historians

edit

Film critics

edit

Academics and authors

edit

Archives and collections

edit

In the 1980s,G. William Jonesled a restoration of early African American films, andSouthern Methodist Universityhas a collection named for him.[24]Kino Lorberproduced thePioneers of African-American Cinema (2015)box set.[24]Other notable collections include:

edit

See also

edit

Bibliography

edit
  • Diawara, Manthia, ed. (1993).Black American Cinema.AFI Film Readers. Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-90397-4.
  • Gillespie, Michael Boyce (2016).Film Blackness: American Cinema and the Idea of Black Film.Duke University Press Books.ISBN978-0-8223-6226-5.
  • Cripps, Thomas (1978).Black Film as Genre.Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-253-37502-5.
  • Cripps, Thomas (1977).Slow Fade to Black: The Negro in American Film, 1900–1942.Oxford University Press.ASINB019NE3UPK.
  • Reid, Mark A. (1993).Redefining Black Film.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-07902-1.
  • Yearwood, Gladstone Lloyd (1999).Black Film as a Signifying Practice: Cinema, Narration and the African American Aesthetic Tradition.Africa World Press.ISBN978-0-86543-715-9.

References

edit
  1. ^abcdJohnson, Allan (October 19, 2005)."How do you define a 'black' movie".chicagotribune.com.RetrievedMarch 3,2021.
  2. ^abAbuku, NeNé (October 5, 2011)."What is Black Cinema? Have You Ever Wondered?".Grandmother Africa.RetrievedMarch 6,2021.
  3. ^abBurton, Nsenga (February 3, 2010)."Celebrating 100 Years of Black Cinema".The Root.RetrievedMarch 6,2021.
  4. ^Field, Allyson Nadia (March 3, 2020)."Black Cinema at Its Birth".The Criterion Collection.
  5. ^abHayward, Susan (April 18, 2006).Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts.Routledge.ISBN978-1-134-20891-3.
  6. ^"Black voices in silent cinema | Sight & Sound".BFI.
  7. ^abEverett, Anna (2000)."Lester Walton's" Écriture Noir ": Black Spectatorial Transcodings of" Cinematic Excess "".Cinema Journal.39(3): 30–50.doi:10.1353/cj.2000.0008.ISSN0009-7101.JSTOR1225532.S2CID194100364.
  8. ^abcMiller, Paul D. (January 31, 2021)."'Race Films': The Black Film Industry that Told Black Stories In Cinema's Earliest Days ".RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  9. ^"Blaxploitation | The Museum Of UnCut Funk".museumofuncutfunk.com.RetrievedMarch 6,2021.
  10. ^Barber, Nicholas."Black Panther: The most radical Hollywood blockbuster ever?".BBC.RetrievedMarch 6,2021.
  11. ^"96.03.13: Black Actors inAmerican Cinema".teachersinstitute.yale.edu.
  12. ^Strausbaugh, John (2006).Black Like You: Blackface, Whiteface, Insult & Imitation in American Popular Culture.Penguin.ISBN978-1-58542-593-8.
  13. ^Berry, S. Torriano; Berry, Venise T. (May 7, 2015).Historical Dictionary of African American Cinema.Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.ISBN978-1-4422-4702-4.
  14. ^"History".earlyracefilm.github.io.RetrievedApril 18,2021.
  15. ^Burton, Nsenga (February 3, 2010)."Celebrating 100 Years of Black Cinema".The Root.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  16. ^"Canvas Login".
  17. ^abHo, Ro (February 21, 2014)."Lincoln Motion Picture Company: 1st black owned film production company".Originalpeople.org.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  18. ^abcd"The Rise and Fall of Ebony Films".normanstudios.org.January 17, 2017.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  19. ^abField, Allyson Nadia (2015). ""To Show the Industrial Progress of the Negro Along Industrial Lines": Uplift Cinema Entrepreneurs at Tuskegee Institute, 1909–1913 ".Uplift Cinema: The Emergence of African American Film and the Possibility of Black Modernity.Duke University Press.ISBN978-0-8223-7555-5.
  20. ^abAllyson Nadia Field PhD (2009) John Henry Goes to Carnegie Hall: Motion Picture Production at Southern Black Agricultural and Industrial Institutes (1909–13), Journal of Popular Film and Television, 37:3, 106-115, DOI: 10.1080/01956050903218075
  21. ^"Hampton Institute | Encyclopedia.com".encyclopedia.com.RetrievedApril 18,2021.
  22. ^ab"Negro Digest".Negro Digest Publishing Company. December 1, 1945 – via Google Books.
  23. ^Clark, Ashley (February 12, 2016)."Second showing: unearthing the lost history of African American cinema".The Guardian.
  24. ^abcde"A short history of Black US indie cinema".BFI.RetrievedJune 4,2021.
  25. ^"NAACP | NAACP History: Oscar Micheaux".NAACP.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  26. ^Counter, B."Los Angeles Theatres: Million Dollar Theatre: history".Los Angeles Theatres.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  27. ^"Toddy Pictures Company collection".oac.cdlib.org.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  28. ^""Soundies" | UCLA Film & Television Archive ".www.cinema.ucla.edu.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  29. ^Chilton, Charlotte (October 5, 2020)."Dorothy Dandridge's Life in Photos".Harper's BAZAAR.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  30. ^"Stepin Fetchit was the first black actor to earn a million — but at what cost?".History 101.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  31. ^"Film".Louis Armstrong Home Museum.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  32. ^Ostwald, David H. (August 3, 1991)."Opinion | Louis Armstrong, Civil Rights Pioneer".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  33. ^"Bill" Bojangles "Robinson | The Stars | Broadway: The American Musical | PBS".Broadway: The American Musical.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  34. ^"Lena Horne ~ Lena Horne Biography | American Masters | PBS".American Masters.May 14, 2010.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  35. ^"The 12th Academy Awards (1940) Nominees and Winners".Oscars.org (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences).Archivedfrom the original on July 6, 2011.RetrievedJuly 6,2024.
  36. ^Ebert, Roger."Guess Who's Coming to Dinner movie review (1968) | Roger Ebert".rogerebert.com/.RetrievedApril 19,2021.
  37. ^"Sidney Poitier | Biography, Movies, & Facts".Encyclopædia Britannica.RetrievedApril 19,2021.
  38. ^ab"INTRODUCTION – The Grindhouse Cinema Database".grindhousedatabase.com.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  39. ^"Exploitation Film".obo.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  40. ^Griffin, Junius (December 17, 1972)."Article 1 -- No Title".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  41. ^"Black Power, Blaxploitation, & The Sounds of the Seventies".CrimeReads.February 26, 2020.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  42. ^"Pam Grier's Best Blaxploitation Films".Filthy.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  43. ^abc"Rise Again: The L.A. Rebellion".UCLA Magazine.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  44. ^Kenigsberg, Ben (June 11, 2020)."If You Want to Learn About the L.A. Rebellion Filmmakers, Start Here".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  45. ^Michel, Martin (November 20, 2016), "'Daughters Of The Dust' – Re-Released Following Attention From Beyonce", NPR –All Things Considered.Retrieved February 7, 2017.
  46. ^abClark, Ashley (April 9, 2015)."The LA rebellion: when black film-makers took on the world – and won".The Guardian.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  47. ^Field, Allyson; Horak, Jan-Christopher; Stewart, Jacqueline Najuma (November 2015).L.A. Rebellion: Creating a New Black Cinema.Univ of California Press.ISBN9780520284685.{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help)
  48. ^"DVD + Book | UCLA Film & Television Archive".www.cinema.ucla.edu.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  49. ^"Black films matter – how African American cinema fought back against Hollywood".The Guardian.October 13, 2016.
  50. ^Maslin, Janet (December 8, 1982)."NICK NOLTE AND EDDIE MURPHY IN '48 HOURS'".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedApril 19,2021.
  51. ^Ebert, Roger."Trading Places movie review & film summary (1983) | Roger Ebert".rogerebert.com.RetrievedApril 19,2021.
  52. ^Maslin, Janet (December 5, 1984)."FILM: MURPHY IN 'BEVERLY HILLS COP'".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedApril 19,2021.
  53. ^abcVh1 February 17, 2016."10 Black Cult Classic Movies of the '80s You Must See".VH1 News.Archived fromthe originalon February 21, 2016.RetrievedApril 19,2021.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  54. ^ab"The Cine-Files » Denzel Washington: Notes on the Construction of a Black Matinee Idol".Retrieved August 25, 2020
  55. ^ab"Black films matter – how African American cinema fought back against Hollywood".The Guardian.October 13, 2016.RetrievedApril 10,2021.
  56. ^Obenson, Tambay (May 9, 2019)."10 Black Films From the 1990s That Changed American Cinema".IndieWire.RetrievedApril 19,2021.
  57. ^Canby, Vincent (November 18, 1992)."Review/Film; 'Malcolm X,' as Complex as Its Subject".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331.RetrievedApril 19,2021.
  58. ^"24 Essential Works of Black Cinema Recommended by Black Directors".September 3, 2020.
  59. ^abHarris, Aisha (April 25, 2021)."2021 Oscars: Tyler Perry Accepts The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award".NPR.RetrievedApril 27,2021.
  60. ^abBerg, Madeline."From" Poor As Hell "To Billionaire: How Tyler Perry Changed Show Business Forever".Forbes.RetrievedFebruary 23,2021.
  61. ^"Tyler Perry sends a stereotype to the slammer".The Denver Post.February 12, 2009.RetrievedMarch 3,2021.
  62. ^"How Georgia Became the Hollywood of the South".Time.RetrievedApril 18,2021.
  63. ^"How Tyler Perry's 'camp quarantine' fended off the pandemic during filming of 'Sistas'".Los Angeles Times.Retrieved April 27, 2021.
  64. ^Morris, Wesley (August 10, 2011)."The Help".Boston.com.RetrievedMarch 3,2021.
  65. ^Afi, American Film; Gevinson, Alan; Institute, American Film (1997).Within Our Gates: Ethnicity in American Feature Films, 1911–1960.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-20964-0.
  66. ^Heltzel, Bill (March 23, 2020)."Rhinebeck collector sued for $1.1M over sale of rare Separate Cinema Archive".Westfair Communications.RetrievedJune 4,2021.
  67. ^"Black Film Promotional Material Collection, 1915–1980 | WUA University Archives".archon.wulib.wustl.edu.RetrievedJune 4,2021.
edit

Blaxpoitation

edit

Overview

edit

Posters and still images

edit

Race Films

edit

Black women pioneers

edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=African_American_cinema&oldid=1237928944"