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Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi

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"Ahmad ibn Ibrahim" redirects here. For the Sultan of Fez from 1374–1384 and 1387–1393, seeAhmad ibn Ibrahim, al-Mustansir.

Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi(Arabic:أحمد بن إبراهيم الغازي,Harari:አሕመድ ኢብራሂም አል-ጋዚ,Somali:Axmed Ibraahim al-Qaasi;[2]c.21 July 1506 – 10 February 1543) was theImamof theAdal Sultanatefrom 1527 to 1543.[3]Commonly named AhmedGragninAmharicandGureyinSomali,both meaning the left-handed, he led the invasion and conquest ofAbyssiniafrom theSultanate of Adalduring theEthiopian-Adal War.[4]He is often referred to as the "King ofZeila"in medieval texts.[1]: 79 

Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi
أحمد بن إبراهيم الغازي
Imam
Statue of Imam Ahmad inMogadishu,Somalia
Leader ofAdal
Reignc.1527 – 21 February 1543
PredecessorAbu Bakr ibn Muhammad
SuccessorNur ibn Mujahid
Bornc.1506
Hubat,Adal Sultanate
Died21 February 1543(1543-02-21)(aged 36–37)
Wayna Daga,Ethiopian Empire
Burial
Sentara
Spouse
Issue
  • Mohammad ibn Ahmad[1]: xxxiv 
  • Ahmed ibn Ahmad Al-Najashi
  • Nasr Ad-Din ibn Ahmad
ReligionSunni Islam

Dubbed "The AfricanAttila"by Orientalist Frederick A. Edwards,[5]: 324 Imam Ahmed‘s conquests reached all the way to the borders of theSultanate of Funj.[6][7]Imam Ahmed won nearly all his battles against the Ethiopians before 1541 and after his victory atBattle of Amba Sel,the Ethiopian Emperor,Dawit IIwas never again in a position to offer a pitched battle to his army[5]: 341 [8]: 329 and was subsequently forced to live as an outlaw constantly hounded by Imam Ahmed's soldiers, theMalassay.[9]

Early years

An illustration of the young Ahmad ibn Ibrahim demonstrating his strength

Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi was born in 1506[10]and hailed from the lowlands ofHubat[11][12]in theAdal Sultanate.The ethnicity of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim is disputed, with historians regarding him as either an ethnicSomali[13]aHarla/Harari,[14]or aBalaw.[15]Ahmad spent a great deal of time in the city ofHarar.[16]According to sixteenth century Adal writerArab Faqīh,due to the secular rule of SultanAbu Bakr ibn Muhammad,Ahmad would leave Harar and return to Hubat.[17]: 165 After the death of ImamMahfuz,GaradAbun Adashewould become the most popular ruler ofAdal,sparking conflict with the rulingWalashma dynastyfor seven years. As an elite infantryman of Hubat, Ahmad joined Adashe in his power struggles against theWalashma.It was during this conflict that Ahmad demonstrated his courage, intelligence and military leadership. Garad Abun, who was astonished by the military valour of Ahmad, arranged for him to marry the lateMahfuz's youngest daughter,Bati del Wambara.[1]: xxxiii [18][19]The Adal sultanAbu Bakr ibn Muhammadis said to have established his capital atHararand recruited a large number ofSomalisinto his army. Together with his Somali allies Abu Bakr defeated and killed Adashe nearZeilain 1525.[17]: 126 The remnants of Adashe's forces retreated back to Hubat where their numbers soon rose to over 100. The Sultan attempted to pursue but Ahmad defeated the Sultan in the field; Abu Bakr was forced to take refuge inOgadenwith his Somali allies. Ahmad did not follow him. After raising another large body of Somali followers, Abu Bakr met Ahmad for the second time. It was an indecisive clash that only forced the Sultan to retreat back into the Ogaden and Ahmad remained inHubatas an independent governor of the rebel province.

Upon hearing that a rebel named Ahmad ibn Ibrahim was in a power struggle with the Adal leaders, the Emperor of EthiopiaDawit IIsent his general Degelhan to confront him. The Abyssinian campaign originally seemed successful as large amounts of women and children of Adal were captured by Degelhan including the mother of Ahmad's commanderAbu Bakr Qatin.Meanwhile, Emir Ahmad had laid a trap in Hubat: splitting his unit into three, he waited for the Abyssinians to enter the region after sackingHararand ambushed them in theBattle of Hubat.The remaining Abyssinian army who were not killed fled in panic, thus Ahmed's troops won decisively and were able to recover stolen booty. Ahmad's victory not only strengthened his fighting capacity, but also spread his fame far and wide. The Sultan hearing about this gathered a large force of his Somali followers and besieged his capital atSiege of Hubat.Ahmad was unprepared and in a mountain encampment on Gara Muleta. The sultan besieged Ahmad and his small force for ten days, when he hoped to starve them. However, at this critical moment, the sheikhs of Harar intervened and reconciled the two leaders. Ahmad was forced to recognize the authority of the Adalite state for the first time in his career.[8]: 327–328 [20]

Ruins of Hubat nearDire Dawa

This peace was immediately broken by Abu Bakr, who tried to assassinate Ahmad while he was inHarar,Ahmad fled back to Hubat where he continued to struggle against the Sultan. At about this time a swarm of bees enlightened on Ahmad's head, this incident was considered so miraculous that people gave him the title ofImam.After much war the Imam defeated and killed Abu Bakr who fled to theOgadenamong his Somali supporters. He then returned toHararwhere he placedUmar Dinon the throne as his puppet. Imam Ahmad would spend the next several months in subjugating the surrounding Somali clans with diplomacy and war. He had hoped to unite all the warring Muslim nomads under his authority which he had done so successfully. The Imam was also able to start stockpiling onfirearmssuch as thematchlockmusket,cannons,and thearquebus,which he obtained fromArabiavia the port ofZeila.[21]Before carrying out his invasion of Ethiopia, it is said he had access to several cannons as well as several well armed soldiers fromYemen.He invited the Somali chiefs of the area to participate in his jihad (holy war) against Ethiopia. Besides the Somalis, Ahmad had also incorporated into his army other peoples in the area who had been in continuous conflict with the Christian empire ever since the fourteenth century, such as theHarla,theArgobba,theAfarand theArabs.By about 1527-9, the Imam was at the head of a strong state, with an ever-increasing sphere of influence in the interior of the Horn, and ready to lead the crucial military offensive against the Christian empire.[22]: 85 [23]

Invasion of Abyssinia

Main article:Ethiopian-Adal War
Early 20th century illustration of Imam Ahmad

The chronicle of Imam Ahmad's invasion of Abyssinia is depicted in various Arabic, Abyssinian and other foreign sources. In 1529 Imam Ahmad finally decided to embark on a conquest of Abyssinia, he soon met the Abyssinians at theBattle of Shimbra Kure.The Emperor had apparently expected this confrontation, and had mobilized a large army to defend his realms. The troops were recruited from all over the empire and the list of Christian generals who participated in the battle includes the Bahr-Negash and other officials fromMedri Bahri,many district governors fromTigray,Amhara,the Agaw territories,Begemder,Gojjam,Shewa,as well as from the frontier provinces ofIfat,Fatagar,Dawaro,BaliandDamot.Although they differ in the corresponding figures which they give, both Christian and Muslim sources are unanimous about the superiority of the Emperor's army in terms of the numbers of soldiers. Despite the enormous size of the Abyssinians' army, the Imam was able to inflict a devastating defeat on the Christians and routed them completely.Richard Pankhurstattributes Imam Ahmad's victory to the presence amongst his followers ofmatchlockmen.This battle was probably the first time Ethiopian forces had to fight against a force equipped with firearms.[17]: 168 He adds that the Abyssinians were unable to endure the “Thunder of the Turkish artillery” and did not know how to cure the wounds which the bullets made.[24]

However, the Imam wasn’t able to take advantage of this victory immediately due to tribal infighting within his army. He was forced to return toHararto resolve disputes between the different tribes that made up his army. He used this opportunity to build up an army that was loyal to him and not to any specific tribal leaders. Finally in 1531 he reconstructed his forces and was able to begin the definite invasion and occupation of Abyssinia. With the help of his advanced weaponry he was able to inflict another crushing defeat on the Abyssinians during theBattle of Antukyahwhich allowed the Adalites to occupyFatagarandShewa.The Imam then dispatched his Somali brother in law,Garad Matan,toIfattelling him to struggle against the inhabitants until he had forced them to submit. The Adalites continued to advance northwards securing the province ofBete Amharaby the end of the year.Dawit IIfell back behind theAbay Riverto the relative security ofGojjam.It was here in Amhara that the Adalites came across many churches and palaces built by the Abyssinians. The Imam was stunned by the beauty of these churches and according to Arab Faqih:

The Imam asked all the Arabs who were with him, "Is there the like of this church, with its images and its gold, in Byzantium, or in India, or in any other place?" They replied, "We never saw or heard of its like in Byzantium or India or anywhere in the world."[25]: 12 

Nevertheless, he ordered all of the churches built by the Abyssinians to be destroyed, including Mekane Selassie, Atronsa Maryam, Debre Nagwadgwad and Ganata Giyorgis. He soon campaigned against the people ofBaliandDawarowhich was governed by Degalhan who had earlier pillaged Adal. They were able to defeat the Abyssinians in theBattle of Amba Selbut this was quite difficult as the Christians were able to inflict

A soldier of Imam Ahmad armed with a musket and a cannon

serious losses on the soldiers of the Imam because they held the high ground, among the dead was the Imam's right-hand man,Garad Matan.The Adalites attempted to capture Degalhan but he was able to escape through Hadiya. For the next two years the Adalites would secure the southern Abyssinian provinces ofDawaro,Bali,Fatagar,HadiyaandWej.After the Adalites conqueredDamotand subjugated the pagans ofGafatthe Imam marched north with his army.[25]: 145 

The Imam was passionately interested in converting newly occupied territories as his men were made up of religious zealots. But many of the conversions were forced. While in theDebre Berhanarea the Imam learned that the locals had not converted to Islam nor did they offer to payjizya.He then ordered that anyone who failed to embraceIslamshould be brought before him. Among those brought before the Imam were two Christian chiefs, finding them adamant in their faith, he then declared “We have decided to cut your heads off!” To which the Christians replied “Very well”. The Imam was surprised but ordered them to be put to death.[24]The Imam would then call an assembly of his Emirs, chieftains and all the Muslim leaders to state his intention of staying in Abyssinia

Praised be God who has conquered the whole of the land of Abyssinia. Now let us send to the land of Sa'd ad-Din, to bring up our wives and our children. Let us make our homes in Abyssinia. It is no longer possible for us to go back down to our country, or to leave this one.

They would then make plans to invadeTigraywhere the Emperor now resides. He first went throughAngotwhere he was able to convince the people to convert to Islam. He then laid sieged to the fortress ofAmba Geshen,around the same time the Adalites captured the Emperor's niece whom the Imam turned into hisconcubine.The Imam was able to acquire newly purchased cannons imported fromZeilawhich helped bring down the fortress. Arab Faqih states that thousands of Christians were captured, the Imam ordered those captured to be beheaded. As the Imam marched into Tigray, his cousin Zaharbui Muhammad was killed in an ambush. The Imam grieved over his death and the next day he set out with his army eager to avenge the death of his cousin.

An illustration of the Imam's order for theEthiopianpriests be eaten alive byhyenas

He defeated the armies ofAgameandTembienand marched towardsAksum,but the locals of Tigray had all assembled to defend their holy city. The Imam defeated and killed a large number of them as Arab Faqih states, "Not a single one managed to slip away. They killed them in the forts, in the valleys and in the gorges. The ground was so thickly covered with their corpses, that it was impossible to walk in that place because of the dead bodies." he estimates that over 10,000 Christians were killed. The Imam reachedAksumwhere upon he destroyed theChurch of Our Lady Mary of Zion.While in Aksum, a Balaw man informed the Adalites that the Christians had barricaded and hid themselves near theAbba Garima Monastery.When the Iman heard this news he set out to find them, when he found them he ordered them to payjizyabut they refused so he massacred them. An army division from Adal crossed theMareb Riverand conqueredMedri Bahri,the subsequent Adalite occupation was bitterly resisted by the locals who killed the Imam's nephew, Vizier 'Addole, sending his head to the Ethiopian Emperor. The Emperor upon receiving it had drums beaten and flutes played, optimistically declaring that the fortunates of the war were soon turning. The Imam, enraged at the death of his nephew marched with his forces intoSerayeand massacred the locals.[17]: 218 [25]: 240 

Dawit IIhad fled toDembiyawith his remaining followers, who were suffering from hunger and exhaustion. The Imam pursued the Abyssinians until they crossed theBlue Nile.[8]: 307–308 After this Imam returned to Tigray where he discovered the region was undergoing a severe famine that took a huge toll on the Adalite army. The conditions were so dire that many Muslims in Ahmad's army converted to Christianity, realizing the impossibility of his position the Imam soon withdrew to the more fertile province ofBegmeder.[17]: 219 [26]Upon arriving inBegmeder,the Imam pacified the people ofSiemenandDembiya.TheBeta Israelassisted the Adalites in subduing the Christians and the establishments on the islands ofLake Tanawere looted and destroyed.[27]In 1536 the Adalites invadedGojjam,to the south ofLake Tana,and massacred the people there. The next year the Imam went toDawaroand stayed there for eight months, and then went on to Angot. The Emperor was forced to live as an outlaw in his own realm constantly hounded by Imam Ahmed's soldiers theMalassay,Dawit then dispatched João Bermudes, who had arrived in Ethiopia with Dom Rodrigo de Lima, to reach out to the King of Portugal for military aid.[9][22]: 173 

The King of Portugal would eventually send ships with 400 Portuguese musketeers, but when they arrived in 1541,Dawit IIwas dead and his sonGelawdewoshad succeeded him.[25]: 260  The Portuguese led byCristóvão da Gamahad arrived inMassawawhereBahr Negus Yeshaqwas still holding out. They were soon met by the Queen MotherSeble Wongeland her followers. Reinforced by her local auxiliaries, together they advanced into Tigray where they defeated a local Adal garrison during theBattle of Baçente.The Imam then sent a messenger to Gama demanding that the Portuguese force either leave Ethiopia, join the Imam, or be destroyed. On the Imam's orders, the messenger produced the gift of a monk's habit, an expensive insult to Gama. Gama responded with his own messenger, who delivered "a few lines inArabic",stating that he had come to Ethiopia" by order of the greatLion of the Sea"and on the" following day he [Ahmad] would see what the Portuguese were worth ", and delivered Gama's own insulting gift: a pair of" small tweezers for the eyebrows, and a very large mirror – making him out [to be] a woman. "[1]: 26f The first encounter took place during theBattle of Jarte,da Gama formed his troops into aninfantry squareand marched against the Imam's lines, repelling successive waves of Adalite attacks with musket and cannon. This battle ended when Imam Ahmad was wounded in the leg by a chance shot; seeing his banners signal retreat, the Portuguese and their Abyssinian allies fell upon them, inflicting immense losses on the Adalites.[1]: 41–47 Over the next several days, Imam Ahmad's forces were reinforced by arrivals of fresh troops. Understanding the need to act swiftly, da Gama on April 16 again formed a square which he led against Imam Ahmad's camp. Castanhoso laments that "the victory would have been complete this day had we only one hundred horses to finish it, for the King was carried on men's shoulders in a bed, accompanied by horsemen, and they fled in no order."[1]: 52 Da Gama marched southward after Imam Ahmad's force, coming within sight of him ten days later. However, the onset of therainy seasonprevented da Gama from engaging Ahmad. On the advice of QueenSeble Wongel,da Gama made winter camp atWoflanear Lake Ashenge, still within sight of his opponent.[1]: 53 Ahmad was forced to retreat further south, where with fortune against him, the local population now openly defied him by refusing to provide him supplies or soldiers.J. Spencer Triminghamidentifies the Imam's refuge near a village namedKobooverlooking theAfar Depression.[22]: 89 [1]: lix f. 

Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi's pioneering use of cannons figured in his conquest of Ethiopian territories.[28]

The Imam successfully petitioned to the Turkish governor ofYemen EyaletinZabid,offering "much money" and submission to the official, he received an additional 2,000 musketeers from Arabia, and artillery and 900 picked men from theOttomansto assist him. Meanwhile, due to casualties and other duties, da Gama's force was reduced to 300 musketeers. After the rains ended, Imam Ahmad attacked the Portuguese camp atWolfaand through weight of numbers killed all but 140 of da Gama's troops. Da Gama himself, badly wounded, was captured with ten of his men and, after refusing an offer to spare his life if he would convert to Islam, was tortured and executed.[1]: 161 

The Imam was certain that the surviving Portuguese were scattered, without their firearms, and alone in a foreign land, he concluded that this threat was ended, dismissed all but two hundred of the foreign musketeers, and proceeded to his camp atDerasgeon the shores ofLake Tana.However, the Portuguese had regrouped and joined QueenSeble Wongel,who had taken refuge at the "Mountain of the Jews", which Whiteway identifies asAmba Sel.Ten days later her son, EmperorGelawdewoshad arrived. Castanhoso states that after the EmperorGelawdewoshad joined the survivors, and seeing the number of men who flocked to the Emperor's standard, at Christmas "we went to the Preste,[29]and begged him to help us avenge the death of Dom Christovão. "[1]: 74 Gelawdewos agreed to march against the Imam. The Portuguese firearms which had been stored atDebre Damowere produced. The allied forces spent the following months arming their troops before heading to Imam Ahmad's camp next toLake Tana.On 13 February 1543, they defeated a group of cavalry and infantry led by the Imam's lieutenant Sayid Mehmed inWogera,killing Sayid Mehmed. From the prisoners it was learned that the Imam was camped only 5 days' march away at Deresgue, and flush with victory the army marched to confront their enemy.[1]: 75 The Imam and his men were apparently stunned that the Portuguese had managed to reassemble and were looking for battle, according to Castanhoso this demoralized the Adalites and put fear into their hearts as "they understood well that we had only come to avenge the past".[1]: 77 

The Abyssinians and Portuguese met Ahmad on 21 February 1543 in theBattle of Wayna Daga.The Imam had an army of over 15,000 soldiers including 200 Turkish musketeers, where as the Abyssinians and Portuguese had a combined force of around 8,000 men. The Abyssinians charged but the Adalites counterattacked and seemed to be pushing back the initial assault. The Abyssinian cavalry then threw themselves vigorously into the Adal lines which pushed the Adalites back. The Imam seeing his men lose ground moved up to encourage them, it was here that the Imam was killed while attempting to rally his men, although the sources differ in how he died.[1]: 80  Upon seeing the death of the Imam, his followers had begun to flee from the battlefield. What followed was a devastating rout as the Abyssinians pursued the fleeing Adalites and cut them down as they ran.[1]: 192 [22]: 89 

The Imam's wifeBati del Wambaramanaged to escape the battlefield with the remnants of the army and retreated back toHarar,abandoning the occupation of Abyssinia. The corpse of the Imam was beheaded and Gelawdewos ordered his head to be set on a spear, and carried around in all of Abyssinia, so that the people know that the conqueror who had wrought them such evils was indeed dead. The Abyssinians then set up great festivals across the country celebrating the death of the Imam, as Castanhoso narrates "We remained in great pleasure, seeing each day the Abyssinians delighting in that victory, and in the liberty in which they found themselves."[1]: 82 

Character

Muslim sources paint the Imam as an ascetic and a modelMujahid.Shihab Ad Din notes that during a campaign inGendebelohe rejected the inhabitants offers of gold for his wife and rebuked the protests of his top lieutenants insisting that the gold was to be used only for the jihad.[25]: 38 

Soon after assuming power in 1527 he forbade wine, gambling, and dances accompanied by drums. He also was known to patronizejuristsandtheologians.[25]: 22 Shihab Ad Din mentions that he built many mosques and towns inBegemderandDembiyaduring his conquest of Tigre. He was also very zealous in converting the Abyssinian population as he personally taught theQuranto the converted and above all children.[5]: 358 During his invasion in 1535 the Imam visited the tomb ofNajashiin Negash to pay his respects as well as naming his son Ahmed Al Najashi after him.[25]: 350f 

Legacy

Jami mosque in Harar, the location of Ahmed ibn Ibrahim's gravestone[30]

Imam Ahmad’s invasion was arguably the single most important chapter in Ethiopia's long history. The destruction of cultural assets and national pride was immense. Imam Ahmad’s invasion left an indelible mark on the Ethiopian psyche. AsPaul B. Henzewrites, "In Ethiopia the damage which Ahmad Gragn did has never been forgotten. Every Christian highlander still hears tales of Gragn in his childhood."[31]Haile Selassiereferred to him in his memoirs: "I have often had villagers in northern Ethiopia point out sites of towns, forts, churches and monasteries destroyed by Gragn as if these catastrophes had occurred only yesterday."[31]Shewanfolklore portrays Imam Ahmed as a giant of mythical stature who was only halted by 500 men, on 500 horses, with 500 rifle shots.[32]Ethiopian chronicles claim that 90% of the Empire was islamized during his conquests.[33] According toEnrico Cerulli,Adal would never recover from the death of Imam Ahmad as the Sultanate of Adal was too newly established to transcend tribal differences. His successors were unable to exert their authority over the nomadic tribes and the Adalite state became mostly centered around the city ofHarar.The result he claims was that the nomadic people instinctively return to their "eternal disintegrating struggles of people against people and tribe against tribe." By 1577 the Adal Sultanate would eventually disintegrate due to tribal infighting and pressure from theOromo migrations.[34][22]: 94 

Historian Didier Morin states Ahmed Ibrahim who holds the title imam is often incorrectly identified with commanderAhmed Girri Bin Hussein Al Somali.[35]

Further reading

  • TheFutūḥAl-Ḥabaša( "The Conquest of Ethiopia" ): Ahmad's invasion of Abyssinia is described in detail in this book, written inArabicby Ahmad's follower Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir. In its current version, it is incomplete, covering the story only to 1537, narrating the Imam's raids on the islands ofLake Tana.Richard Burtonthe explorer claimed that the second part could be found "in Mocha or Hudaydah", but, despite later investigation, no one else has reported seeing a copy of this second part. The surviving first part was translated into French byRené Bassetand published from 1897 to 1901;Richard Pankhurstmade a partial translation into English as part of hisThe Ethiopian Royal Chronicles(Addis Ababa: Oxford University Press, 1967), and a complete translation into English by Paul Lester Stenhouse was published by Tsehai in 2003 (ISBN978-0-9723172-5-2).
  • Jeffrey, Shaw (2021).The Ethiopian-Adal War, 1529-1543: The Conquest of Abyssinia.Warwick: Helion and Company.ISBN978-1914059681.
  • Whiteway, Richard Stephen, ed. (1902).The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia in 1541-1543, as Narrated by Castanhoso, with Some Contemporary Letters, the Short Account of Bermudez, and Certain Extracts from Correa.Works issued by the Hakluyt Society, 2nd series. Vol. 10. Translated by Whiteway. London:The Hakluyt Society.ISSN0072-9396.(collection of primary sources on the Portuguese expedition in English translation; alsoon Wikimedia Commons)

See also

References

  1. ^abcdefghijklmno Whiteway, Richard Stephen, ed. (1902).The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia in 1541-1543, as Narrated by Castanhoso, with Some Contemporary Letters, the Short Account of Bermudez, and Certain Extracts from Correa.Works issued by the Hakluyt Society, 2nd series. Vol. 10. Translated by Whiteway. London:The Hakluyt Society.ISSN0072-9396.
  2. ^R. Michael Feener (2004).Islam in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives.ABC-CLIO. p. 219.ISBN9781576075166.
  3. ^Saheed A. Adejumobi (2008).The History of Ethiopia.Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 178.ISBN9780313322730.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-04-08.Retrieved2019-02-11.
  4. ^The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 1.Encyclopædia Britannica. 1998. p. 163.ISBN9780852296639.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-04-08.Retrieved2019-02-11.
  5. ^abc Edwards, Frederick A. (January–April 1905)."The Conquest of Abyssinia".The Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review and Oriental and Colonial Record.3rd series.19(37 & 38). Woking: The Oriental Institute: 320–360.
  6. ^Burton, Richard.First Footsteps in East Africa.p. 179.
  7. ^Pal Ruhela, Satya; Farah Aidid, Mohammed (1994).Somalia: From The Dawn of Civilization To The Modern Times.Vikas Pub. House.ISBN9780706980042.
  8. ^abc Budge, E. A. Wallis (1928).A History of Ethiopia Nubia & Abyssinia.Vol. 1. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.
  9. ^abMolvaer, Reidulf (1998)."The Tragedy of Emperor Libne-Dingil of Ethiopia (1508-1540)".Northeast African Studies.5(2). Michigan State University Press: 32.doi:10.1353/nas.1998.0011.ISSN0740-9133.JSTOR41931161.S2CID143584847.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-09-27.Retrieved2023-04-05.
  10. ^ʻěnbāqom (1969).Anqaṣa Amin: la porte de la foi. Apologie éthiopienne du christianisme contre l'Islam à partir du Coran. Introduction, texte critique et traduction par E.J. Van Donzel...(in French). Brill Archive. p. 9.
  11. ^Hinika, Mohammed Hassen (2017-12-13)."The Genealogy and Ethnic Identity of Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim Al-Gazi (Gragn) of Ethiopia: A Historiographical Reappraisal".East African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities.2(2): 21–40.ISSN2521-2192.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-02-14.Retrieved2020-12-27.Imam Ahmed, born in 1506 at Hubat (specifically at Za‟ka, 32 km northeast of Harar town), was the leader of the militant Muslim Sultanate of Adal which embarked on a conquest of the Christian highland kingdom between 1529 and 1543.
  12. ^ Trimingham, J. Spencer(1952).Islam in Ethiopia(PDF).London, New York, Toronto: Oxford University Press. p. 85.His earlier years were passed in Hūbat (the region betweenGildessaandHarar)...
  13. ^*Richard Stephen Whiteway (1902).The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1543 as Narrated by Castanhoso.Hakluyt Society. p.xxxiii.Of the early history of the Imam Ahmad but little is known. He was the son of one Ibrahim el Ghazi, and both he and his father were common soldiers in the troop of the Garâd Aboun. Nothing even is said as to his nationality. He was certainly not an Arab: probably he was aSomali,for we find him closely connected with many who were Somalis.
  14. ^*Aregay, Merid Wolde. (1971).Southern Ethiopia and the Christian kingdom 1508 - 1708, with special reference to the Galla migrations and their consequences(Ph.D). University of London. p. 133.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-04-21.Retrieved2021-04-21.Merid Wolde Aregayargued Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi belonged to theHarladynasty of rulers through his father.
    • Hassen, Mohammed. "Review work Futuh al habasa".International Journal of Ethiopian Studies:179–180.JSTOR27828848.Mohammed Hassan states that Ahmed was the son ofGaradIbrahim, a provincial governor of Sim in Harla realm.
    • Gikes, Patrick (2003)."National Identity and Historical Mythology in Eritrea and Somaliland".Northeast African Studies.10(3). Michigan State University Press: 174.JSTOR41931244.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-08-20.Retrieved2021-08-22.The emir was almost certainly from one of the pre-Somali peoples aroundHarar,but Somalis from a number of clans, particularly the Gorgora, a clan that probably originated around Zelia, certainly fought in his armies. Ahmed himself probably had no direct links with Somalis other than recruiting them.
    • Wagner, Ewald (1991)."The Genealogy of the later Walashma' Sultans of Adal and Harar".Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft.141(2). Harrassowitz Verlag: 377.JSTOR43378336.German scholar Ewald Wagner states that Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim was a member of theHarariethnic group.
    • Kluijver, Robert (2021).A political history of Somalia(Ph.D). Paris Institute of Political Studies. p. 39.Ahmed Gurey (or Gragn as he is called by the Ethiopians, or Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al Ghazi as the Arabs have called him) was probably the son of a local Harari chieftain who rose in the local military.
    • Shahin, Emad (2014).The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-973935-6.the local Harari amīr, Aḥmad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Ghāzī, nicknamed Gragn (in Amharic graññ, left-handed), unified the various Islamic peoples and conquered Ethiopia,
  15. ^Hinika, Mohammed Hassen (2017-12-13)."The Genealogy and Ethnic Identity of Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim Al-Gazi (Gragn) of Ethiopia: A Historiographical Reappraisal".East African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities.2(2): 21–40.ISSN2521-2192.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-02-14.Retrieved2020-12-27.However, based on available meager documents, it has been tried to show that Imam Ahmad was an ethnic Balaw on his father's side and an Afar on his mother's side. The former is arguably based on the evidence weighed Gragn's paternal ancestry to be more convincing. As far as the later is concerned, attempts have been made to present a number of arguments are adequate to conclude that Imam was maternally of Afar origin. But the evidences that discuss his Afar connection, no concrete linkage is established with his with his paternal side while the Balaw tradition could at least off paternal relation. If then, Imam Ahmad was a Balaw in his paternal side and we accept an Afar connection due to his maternal ancestry. Imam Ahmad was a Balaw because genealogy is counted based on the paternal clan identity in most societies found in the Horn of Africa.
  16. ^David H. Shinn, Thomas P. Ofcansky (2013).Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia.Scarecrow Press. pp. 20–21.ISBN9780810874572.
  17. ^abcde Richard Pankhurst (1997).The Ethiopian Borderlands: In Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century Essay.Red Sea Press.ISBN9780932415196.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-04-08.Retrieved2019-02-11.
  18. ^Adashe.JSTOR41965889.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-05-08.Retrieved2021-05-08.
  19. ^Adashe.1905.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-04-08.Retrieved2021-05-08.
  20. ^Hassan, Mohammed.Oromo of Ethiopia(PDF).University of London. p. 30.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2020-02-13.Retrieved2023-04-05.
  21. ^Cambridge illustrated atlas,Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792,by Jeremy Black pg 9
  22. ^abcde Trimingham, J. Spencer(1952).Islam in Ethiopia(PDF).London, New York, Toronto: Oxford University Press.
  23. ^The Cambridge History of Africa: From c. 500 B.C. to A.D. 1050.Cambridge University Press. 1975.ISBN9780521209816.
  24. ^abPankhurst,The Ethiopians,p. 88
  25. ^abcdefg Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir, also known as ʻArab Faqīh (2003).Futūḥ Al-Ḥabaša: The Conquest of Abyssinia [16th Century].Translated by Stenhouse, Paul Lester. Annotations by Richard Pankhurst. Hollywood, California, USA: Tsehai Publishers & Distributors.ISBN9780972317269.OCLC57236304.
  26. ^Pankhurst, Richard R. K.1961.An Introduction to the Economic History of Ethiopia.London: Lalibela House.
  27. ^Futuh,pp. 381–384.
  28. ^Jeremy Black, Cambridge illustrated atlas, warfare: Renaissance to revolution, 1492–1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.
  29. ^Sic.Early visitors to Ethiopia commonly identified the Emperor with the legendaryPrester John
  30. ^Insoll, Timothy.The Mosques of Harar: An Archaeological and Historical Study(PDF).University of Exeter. p. 6.
  31. ^abPaul B. Henze (2002).Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia.Hurst & Company. p. 90.ISBN9781850653936.
  32. ^Rochet d'Héricourt, Charles-Xavier (1841).Journey to the eastern coast of the Red Sea, to the land of Adel and the kingdom of Choa.p. 209.
  33. ^Solomon Gebreyes Beyene, The Chronicle of King Gälawdewos (1540-1559): A Critical Edition with Annotated Translation, p. 185, Chap. 4,https://d-nb.info/1116605163/34
  34. ^Cerulli, Enrico.Islam: Yesterday and Today translated by Emran Waber.Istituto Per L'Oriente. p. 218.
  35. ^Morin, Didier (2004).Dictionnaire historique afar: 1288-1982.KARTHALA Editions. p. 42.ISBN9782845864924.
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