Wikipedia

Airline

(Redirected fromAirline company)
For other uses, seeAirline (disambiguation).

Anairlineis a company that providesair transport servicesfor travelingpassengersorfreight.Airlines useaircraftto supply these services and may formpartnershipsorallianceswith other airlines forcodeshare agreements,in which they both offer and operate the same flight. Generally, airline companies are recognized with anair operating certificateor license issued by a governmental aviation body. Airlines may be scheduled orcharteroperators.

1930s German poster advertising a weeklyairmailservice fromDeutsche Lufthansa,Syndicato CondorandDeutsche Zeppelin Reederei

Thefirst airlinewas the GermanairshipcompanyDELAG,founded on November 16, 1909.[1]The four oldest non-airship airlines that still exist are the Netherlands'KLM(1919),[2]Colombia'sAvianca(1919),[3]Australia'sQantas(1920)[4]and the RussianAeroflot(1923).[2]

Airline ownership has seen a shift from mostly personal ownership until the 1930s to government-ownership of major airlines from the 1940s to 1980s and back to large-scaleprivatizationfollowing the mid-1980s.[5]Since the 1980s, there has been a trend of major airlinemergersand the formation of airline alliances. The largest alliances areStar Alliance,SkyTeamandOneworld.Airline alliances coordinate their passenger service programs (such asloungesandfrequent-flyer programs), offer specialinterlinetickets and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide).

History

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The first airlines

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DELAG,Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft Iwas theworld's first airline.[1]It was founded on November 16, 1909, with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by TheZeppelin Corporation.Its headquarters were inFrankfurt.

The firstfixed-wingscheduled airline was started on January 1, 1914. The flight was piloted by Tony Jannus[6]and flew fromSt. Petersburg, Florida,toTampa, Florida,operated by theSt. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line.[7]

Europe

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Beginnings

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A 1919 advertisement for the Dutch airlineKLM,founded on October 7, 1919, theoldest running airline still operating under its original name
TheHandley Page W.8bwas used byHandley Page Transport,an early British airline established in 1919.

The earliest fixed wing airline in Europe wasAircraft Transport and Travel,formed byGeorge Holt Thomasin 1916; via a series of takeovers and mergers, this company is an ancestor of modern-dayBritish Airways.Using a fleet of former militaryAirco DH.4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in thefuselage,it operated relief flights betweenFolkestoneandGhent,Belgium. On July 15, 1919, the company flew a proving flight across theEnglish Channel,despite a lack of support from the British government. Flown by Lt. H Shaw in anAirco DH.9betweenRAF HendonandParis – Le Bourget Airport,the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger.

On August 25, 1919, the company usedDH.16sto pioneer a regular service fromHounslow Heath Aerodrometo Paris'sLe Bourget,the first regular international service in the world. The airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather, and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civilairmailcontract. SixRoyal Air ForceAirco DH.9Aaircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service betweenHawkingeandCologne.In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force.[8]

Other British competitors were quick to follow –Handley Page Transportwas established in 1919 and used the company's convertedwartimeType O/400bomberswith a capacity for 12 passengers,[9]to run aLondon-Parispassenger service.[10]

The first French airline wasSociété des lignes Latécoère,later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. TheSociété Générale des Transports Aérienswas created in late 1919, by theFarmanbrothers and theFarman F.60 Goliathplane flew scheduled services fromToussus-le-NobletoKenley,nearCroydon,England. Another early French airline was theCompagnie des Messageries Aériennes,established in 1919 byLouis-Charles Breguet,offering a mail and freight service betweenLe Bourget Airport,ParisandLesquin Airport,Lille.[11]

Junkers F.13D-190ofJunkers Luftverkehr

The first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft wasDeutsche Luft-Reedereiestablished in 1917 which started operating in February 1919. In its first year, the D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the D.L.R. network was more than 3000 km (1865 miles) long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia and the Baltic Republics. Another important German airline wasJunkers Luftverkehr,which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturerJunkers,which became a separate company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.[citation needed]

TheDutchairlineKLMmade its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviatorAlbert Plesman,[12]it was immediately awarded a "Royal" predicate fromQueen Wilhelmina.[13]Its first flight was fromCroydon Airport,LondontoAmsterdam,using a leasedAircraft Transport and TravelDH-16,and carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services.[14]

InFinland,the charter establishing Aero O/Y (nowFinnair) was signed in the city ofHelsinkion 12 September 1923.Junkers F.13D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on 14 March 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki andTallinn,capital ofEstonia,and it took place on 20 March 1924, one week later.[15]

In theSoviet Union,the Chief Administration of the Civil Air Fleet was established in 1921. One of its first acts was to help found Deutsch-Russische Luftverkehrs A.G. (Deruluft), a German-Russian joint venture to provide air transport from Russia to the West. Domestic air service began around the same time, when Dobrolyot started operations on 15 July 1923 between Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod. Since 1932 all operations had been carried under the nameAeroflot.[16]

Early European airlines tended to favor comfort – the passenger cabins were often spacious with luxurious interiors – over speed and efficiency. The relatively basic navigational capabilities of pilots at the time also meant that delays due to the weather were commonplace.[17]

Rationalization

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TheImperial AirwaysEmpire Terminal,Victoria, London.Trains ran from here toflying boatsinSouthampton,and toCroydon Airport.

By the early 1920s, small airlines were struggling to compete, and there was a movement towards increased rationalization and consolidation. In 1924,Imperial Airwayswas formed from the merger ofInstone Air Line Company,British Marine Air Navigation,Daimler AirwayandHandley Page Transport,to allow British airlines to compete with stiff competition from French and German airlines that were enjoying heavy government subsidies. The airline was a pioneer in surveying and opening up air routes across the world to serve far-flung parts of theBritish Empireand to enhance trade and integration.[18]

The first new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways, was theHandley Page W8fCity of Washington,delivered on 3 November 1924.[19]In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In April 1925, the filmThe Lost Worldbecame the first film to be screened for passengers on a scheduled airliner flight when it was shown on the London-Paris route.

Two French airlines also merged to formAir Unionon 1 January 1923. This later merged with four other French airlines to becomeAir France,the country's flagship carrier to this day, on 17 May 1933.[20]

Germany'sDeutsche Lufthansawas created in 1926 by merger of two airlines, one of themJunkers Luftverkehr.Lufthansa, due to theJunkersheritage and unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital toVarigand Avianca. German airliners built byJunkers,Dornier,andFokkerwere among the most advanced in the world at the time.[citation needed]

Expansion

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In 1926,Alan Cobhamsurveyed a flight route from the UK toCape Town,South Africa,following this up with another proving flight toMelbourne,Australia.Other routes toBritish Indiaand theFar Eastwere also charted and demonstrated at this time. Regular services toCairoandBasrabegan in 1927 and were extended toKarachiin 1929. The London-Australiaservice was inaugurated in 1932 with theHandley Page HP 42airliners. Further services were opened up toCalcutta,Rangoon,Singapore,BrisbaneandHong Kongpassengers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong.[citation needed]

April 1935 map showingImperial Airways' routes from theUKtoAustraliaandSouth Africa

France began an air mail service toMoroccoin 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamedAéropostale,and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale wentbankrupt,was nationalized and merged intoAir France.[21]

Although Germany lacked colonies, it also began expanding its services globally. In 1931, the airshipGraf Zeppelinbegan offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America, usually every two weeks, which continued until 1937.[22]In 1936, the airshipHindenburgentered passenger service and successfully crossed the Atlantic 36 times before crashing at Lakehurst, New Jersey, on 6 May 1937.[23]In 1938, a weekly air service from Berlin toKabul,Afghanistan,started operating.[24]

From February 1934 until World War II began in 1939,Deutsche Lufthansaoperated an airmail service fromStuttgart,GermanyviaSpain,theCanary Islandsand West Africa toNatalinBrazil.This was the first time an airline flew across an ocean.[25][26]

By the end of the 1930sAeroflothad become the world's largest airline, employing more than 4,000 pilots and 60,000 other service personnel and operating around 3,000 aircraft (of which 75% were considered obsolete by its own standards). During the Soviet era Aeroflot was synonymous with Russian civil aviation, as it was the only air carrier. It became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on 15 September 1956 with theTupolev Tu-104.[27]

Deregulation

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Deregulation of theEuropean Unionairspace in the early 1990s has had substantial effect on the structure of the industry there. The shift towards 'budget' airlines on shorter routes has been significant. Airlines such asEasyJetandRyanairhave often grown at the expense of the traditional national airlines.

There has also been a trend for these national airlines themselves to be privatized such as has occurred forAer LingusandBritish Airways.Other national airlines, including Italy'sAlitalia,suffered – particularly with the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008.[28]

Finnair,the largest airline ofFinland,had no fatal or hull-loss accidents since 1963, and is recognized for its safety.[29][30][31]

United States

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Main article:Air transportation in the United States

Early development

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TWADouglas DC-3in 1940. The DC-3, often regarded as one of the most influential aircraft in the history of commercial aviation, revolutionized air travel.

Tony Jannusconducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on January 1, 1914, for theSt. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line.[32]The 23-minute flight traveled betweenSt. Petersburg, FloridaandTampa, Florida,passing some 50 feet (15 m) above Tampa Bay in Jannus'Benoist XIVwood and muslin biplane flying boat. His passenger was a former mayor of St. Petersburg, who paid $400 for the privilege of sitting on a wooden bench in the open cockpit. The Airboat line operated for about four months, carrying more than 1,200 passengers who paid $5 each.[33]Chalk's International Airlinesbegan service between Miami and Bimini in theBahamasin February 1919. Based inFt. Lauderdale,Chalk's claimed to be the oldest continuously operating airline in the United States until its closure in 2008.[34]

FollowingWorld War I,the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing aerobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In 1918, theUnited States Postal Servicewon the financial backing ofCongressto begin experimenting withair mailservice, initially usingCurtiss Jenny[35]aircraft that had been procured by theUnited States Army Air Service.Private operators were the first to fly the mail but due to numerous accidents the US Army was tasked with mail delivery. During the Army's involvement they proved to be too unreliable and lost their air mail duties.[36]By the mid-1920s, thePostal Servicehad developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone betweenNew York CityandSan Francisco.[37]To supplement this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders. Some of the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve intoPan Am,Delta Air Lines,Braniff Airways,American Airlines,United Airlines(originally a division ofBoeing),Trans World Airlines,Northwest Airlines,andEastern Air Lines.

Service during the early 1920s was sporadic: most airlines at the time were focused oncarrying bags of mail.In 1925, however, theFord Motor Companybought out theStout Aircraft Companyand began construction of the all-metalFord Trimotor,which became the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the Trimotor made passenger service potentially profitable.[38]Air service was seen as a supplement torailservice in the American transportation network.

At the same time,Juan Trippebegan a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline,Pan Am,with a fleet of flying boats that linkedLos AngelestoShanghaiandBostontoLondon.Pan Am and Northwest Airways (which began flights to Canada in the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international before the 1940s.

With the introduction of theBoeing 247andDouglas DC-3in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during theGreat Depression.This trend continued until the beginning ofWorld War II.[39]

Since 1945

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Boeing 377ofAmerican Export Airlines,the first airline to offer landplane flights across the North Atlantic in October 1945.[40]

World War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as theBoeing Stratocruiser,Lockheed Constellation,andDouglas DC-6.Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as theB-29,which had spearheaded research into new technologies such aspressurization.Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload.[41][42]

In the 1950s, theDe Havilland Comet,Boeing 707,Douglas DC-8,andSud Aviation Caravellebecame the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the Eastern bloc hadTupolev Tu-104andTupolev Tu-124in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as CzechoslovakČSA,SovietAeroflotand East-GermanInterflug.TheVickers ViscountandLockheed L-188 Electrainaugurated turboprop transport.

On 4 October 1958,British Overseas Airways Corporationstartedtransatlantic flightsbetweenLondon HeathrowandNew York Idlewildwith a Comet 4, andPan Amfollowed on 26 October with a Boeing 707 service between New York and Paris.[43]

The next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when theBoeing 747,McDonnell Douglas DC-10,andLockheed L-1011inauguratedwidebody( "jumbo jet" ) service, which is still the standard in international travel.[44]TheTupolev Tu-144and its Western counterpart,Concorde,made supersonic travel a reality.[45]Concorde first flew in 1969 and operated through 2003. In 1972,Airbusbegan producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also features modern electronic cockpits that were common across their aircraft to enable pilots to fly multiple models with minimal cross-training.[46]

Deregulation

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Pan AmBoeing 747Clipper Neptune's Carin 1985. The deregulation of the American airline industry increased the financial troubles of the airline which ultimately filed for bankruptcy in December 1991.[47]

The 1978 U.S.airline industry deregulationlowered federally controlled barriers for new airlines just as a downturn in the nation's economy occurred. New start-ups entered during the downturn, during which time they found aircraft and funding, contracted hangar and maintenance services, trained new employees, and recruited laid-off staff from other airlines.

Major airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new start-ups. In the place of high barriers to entry imposed by regulation, the major airlines implemented an equally high barrier calledloss leaderpricing.[48]In this strategy an already established and dominant airline stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on specific routes, below the cost of operating on it, choking out any chance a start-up airline may have. The industry side effect is an overall drop in revenue and service quality.[49]Since deregulation in 1978 the average domestic ticket price has dropped by 40%.[50]So has airline employee pay. By incurring massive losses, the airlines of the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business.[51]America West Airlines(which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under.

In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joiningfrequent flyerloyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, from almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put long-distance intercityrailroadtravel and bus lines under pressure, with most of the latter having withered away, whilst the former is still protected undernationalizationthrough the continuing existence ofAmtrak.

By the 1980s, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide.

Toward the end of the century, a new style oflow cost airlineemerged, offering a no-frills product at a lower price.Southwest Airlines,JetBlue,AirTran Airways,Skybus Airlinesand other low-cost carriers began to represent a serious challenge to the so-called "legacy airlines", as did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries.[52]Their commercial viability represented a serious competitive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these,ATAand Skybus have since ceased operations.

Increasingly since 1978, US airlines have been reincorporated andspun offby newly created and internally led management companies, and thus becoming nothing more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited financially decisive control. Among some of theseholding companiesandparent companieswhich are relatively well known, are theUAL Corporation,along with theAMR Corporation,among a longlist of airline holding companiessometime recognized worldwide. Less recognized are theprivate-equity firmswhich often seize managerial, financial, andboard of directorscontrol of distressed airline companies by temporarily investing large sums ofcapitalin air carriers, to rescheme an airlines assets into a profitable organization orliquidatingan air carrier of their profitable and worthwhile routes and business operations.[citation needed]

Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S.legacy carriersurvived bankruptcy-free. Among the outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of American Airlines,Robert Crandallhas publicly stated: "Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing shows airline industry deregulation was a mistake."[53]

Bailout

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Congress passed theAir Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act(P.L. 107–42) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of theSeptember 11 attacks.Through theATSBCongress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through December 31, 2001, as a result of the terrorist attacks. This resulted in the first government bailout of the 21st century.[54]Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $30 billion with wage cuts of over $15 billion and 100,000 employees laid off.[55]

In recognition of the essential national economic role of a healthy aviation system, Congress authorized partial compensation of up to $5 billion in cash subject to review by theU.S. Department of Transportationand up to $10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly createdAir Transportation Stabilization Board(ATSB). The applications to DOT for reimbursements were subjected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT program personnel but also by theGovernment Accountability Office[56]and the DOT Inspector General.[57][58]

Ultimately, the federal government provided $4.6 billion in one-time, subject-to-income-tax cash payments to 427 U.S. air carriers, with no provision for repayment, essentially a gift from the taxpayers. (Passenger carriers operating scheduled service received approximately $4 billion, subject to tax.)[59]In addition, the ATSB approved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approximately $1.6 billion. Data from theU.S. Treasury Departmentshow that the government recouped the $1.6 billion and a profit of $339 million from the fees, interest and purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan guarantees.[60]

The three largestmajor carriersandSouthwest Airlinescontrol 70% of the U.S. passenger market.[61]

Asia

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1935 Timetable ofTata Airlines,founded in 1932

AlthoughPhilippine Airlines(PAL) was officially founded on February 26, 1941, its license to operate as an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate Emmanuel N. Bachrach on 3 December 1930, making it Asia's oldest scheduled carrier still in operation.[62]Commercial air service commenced three weeks later fromManilatoBaguio,making it Asia's first airline route. Bachrach's death in 1937 paved the way for its eventual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and made it Asia's oldest airline. It is also the oldest airline in Asia still operating under its current name.[63]Bachrach's majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of GeneralDouglas MacArthurand later merged with newly formed Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity. Soriano has controlling interest in both airlines before the merger. PAL restarted service on 15 March 1941, with a singleBeech Model 18NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services betweenManila(fromNielson Field) andBaguio,later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount.

Cathay Pacificwas one of the first airlines to be launched among the other Asian countries in 1946 along withAsiana Airlines,which later joined in 1988. The license to operate as an airliner was granted by the federal government body after reviewing the necessity at the national assembly. TheHanjinoccupies the largest ownership of Korean Air as well as few low-budget airlines as of now. Korean Air is one of the four founders ofSkyTeam,which was established in 2000. Asiana Airlines joinedStar Alliancein 2003. Korean Air and Asiana Airlines comprise one of the largest combined airline miles and number of passenger served at the regional market of Asian airline industry

Indiawas also one of the first countries to embrace civil aviation.[64]One of the first Asian airline companies wasAir India,which was founded asTata Airlinesin 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (nowTata Group). The airline was founded by India's leading industrialist,JRD Tata.On 15 October 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single enginedDe Havilland Puss Mothcarrying air mail (postal mail ofImperial Airways) fromKarachitoBombayviaAhmedabad.The aircraft continued toMadrasvia Bellary piloted byRoyal Air ForcepilotNevill Vintcent.Tata Airlines was also one of the world's first major airlines which began its operations without any support from the Government.[65]

With the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on 29 July 1946, under the name Air India. After theindependence of India,49% of the airline was acquired by theGovernment of India.In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the nameAir India International.[66]

On 31 July 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL)DC-4ferried 40 American servicemen toOakland,California,from Nielson Airport inMakatiwith stops inGuam,Wake Island,Johnston AtollandHonolulu,Hawaii,making PAL the first Asian airline to cross thePacific Ocean.A regular service betweenManilaandSan Franciscowas started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the flag carrier of Philippines.[67]

During the era ofdecolonization,newly born Asian countries started to embrace air transport. Among the first Asian carriers during the era wereCathay PacificofHong Kong(founded in September 1946),Orient Airways(laterPakistan International Airlines;founded in October 1946),Air Ceylon(laterSriLankan Airlines;founded in 1947),Malayan Airways Limitedin 1947 (laterSingaporeandMalaysia Airlines),El AlinIsraelin 1948,Garuda Indonesiain 1949,Japan Airlinesin 1951,Thai Airwaysin 1960, andKorean National Airlinesin 1947.[citation needed]

Singapore Airlineshad won quality awards.[68][69]

Latin America and Caribbean

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LATAM Airlinesis the largest airline inLatin Americain terms of number of annual passengers flown.[70]

Among the first countries to have regular airlines in Latin America and the Caribbean wereBoliviawithLloyd Aéreo Boliviano,[71]CubawithCubana de Aviación,ColombiawithAvianca(the first airline established in the Americas), Argentina withAerolíneas Argentinas,ChilewithLAN Chile(todayLATAM Airlines),BrazilwithVarig,theDominican RepublicwithDominicana de Aviación,MexicowithMexicana de Aviación,Trinidad and TobagowithBWIA West Indies Airways(todayCaribbean Airlines),VenezuelawithAeropostal,Puerto RicowithPuertorriquena;andTACAbased inEl Salvadorand representing several airlines ofCentral America(Costa Rica,Guatemala,HondurasandNicaragua). All the previous airlines started regular operations well beforeWorld War II.Puerto Rican commercial airlines such asPrinair,Oceanair,Fina AirandVieques Air Linkcame much after the second world war, as did several others from other countries like Mexico'sInterjetandVolaris,Venezuela'sAserca Airlinesand others.

The air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years inLatin America.Some industry estimates indicated in 2011 that over 2,000 new aircraft will begin service over the next five years in this region.[72]

These airlines serve domestic flights within their countries, as well as connections within Latin America and also overseas flights to North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia.

Only five airline groups –Avianca,Panama'sCopa,Mexico'sVolaris,the Irelandia group andLATAM Airlines– have international subsidiaries and cover many destinations within the Americas as well as major hubs in other continents. LATAM withChileas the central operation along withPeru,Ecuador,Colombia,BrazilandArgentinaand formerly with some operations in theDominican Republic.TheAviancagroup has its main operation in Colombia based around the hub inBogotá,Colombia, as well as subsidiaries in various Latin American countries with hubs inSan Salvador,El Salvador, as well asLima,Peru, with a smaller operation in Ecuador.[citation needed]Copa has subsidiariesCopa Airlines ColombiaandWingo,both in Colombia, while Volaris of Mexico hasVolaris Costa RicaandVolaris El Salvador,and the Irelandia group formerly includedViva Aerobusof Mexico; it now includesViva ColombiaandViva Air Peru.

Regulation

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National

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Union Jacktails ofBritish Airways,UK'sflag carrier

Many countries havenational airlinesthat the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to much government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, governments often intervene to halt airline labor actions to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety.

The United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, India, the United Kingdom, and Japan have "deregulated" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand. The entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base.

As a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants.

In the United States, the airline industry is dominated by four large firms. Because of industry consolidation, after fuel prices dropped considerably in 2015, very little of the savings were passed on to consumers.[73]

International

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International Civil Aviation Organizationheadquarters inMontreal

Groups such as theInternational Civil Aviation Organizationestablish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was theBermuda Agreementbetween the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes.

Bilateral agreements are based on the "freedoms of the air",a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known ascabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas.

In the 1990s, "open skies"agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because ofcabotagerestrictions.

Economy

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In 2017, 4.1 billion passengers have been carried by airlines in 41.9 million commercial scheduled flights (an average payload of 98 passengers), for 7.75 trillionpassenger kilometres(an average trip of 1890 km) over 45,091 airline routes served globally. In 2016, air transport generated $704.4 billion of revenue in 2016, employed 10.2 million workers, supported 65.5 million jobs and $2.7 trillion of economic activity: 3.6% of the globalGDP.[74]

In July 2016, the total weekly airline capacity was 181.1 billionAvailable Seat Kilometers(+6.9% compared to July 2015): 57.6bn in Asia-Pacific, 47.7bn in Europe, 46.2bn in North America, 12.2bn in Middle East, 12.0bn in Latin America and 5.4bn in Africa.[75]

Top 150 airline groups[76]
2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008
Revenue ($bn) 694 698 704 684 663 634 560 481 540
Operating result ($bn) 58.9 65.0 30.4 27.5 20.7 21.3 32.4 1.7 −15.3
Operating margin (%) 8.5% 9.3% 4.3% 4.0% 3.1% 3.4% 5.8% 0.4% −2.8%
Net result ($bn) 34.2 42.4 11.7 15.3 4.6 0.3 19.0 −5.7 −32.5
Net margin (%) 4.9% 6.1% 1.7% 2.2% 0.7% 0.0% 3.4% −1.2% −6.0%

Costs

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AnAirbus A340-600 ofVirgin Atlantic.In October 2008, Virgin Atlantic offered to combine its operations withBMIin an effort to reduce operating costs.[77]

Airlines have substantial fixed and operating costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, booking commissions, advertising, catering, training,aviation insuranceand other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers.

Moreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed because of a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes and surcharges beyond the control of airlines. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the original country.

Analysis of the 1992–1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2–3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10–13%, handling companies 11–14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%.[78]

There has been continuing cost competition fromlow cost airlines.Many companies emulateSouthwest Airlinesin various respects.[79]The lines between full-service and low-cost airlines have become blurred – e.g., with most "full service" airlines introducing baggage check fees despite Southwest not doing so.

Many airlines in the U.S. and elsewhere have experienced business difficulty. U.S. airlines that have declaredChapter 11bankruptcy since 1990 have includedAmerican Airlines,Continental Airlines(twice),Delta Air Lines,Northwest Airlines,Pan Am,United AirlinesandUS Airways(twice).

Where an airline has established an engineering base at an airport, then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or "hub" ) for its scheduled flights.

Fuel hedgingis acontractualtool used by transportation companies like airlines to reduce their exposure to volatile and potentially rising fuel costs. Several low-cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines adopt this practice. Southwest is credited with maintaining strong business profits between 1999 and the early 2000s due to its fuel hedging policy. Many other airlines are replicating Southwest's hedging policy to control their fuel costs.[80]

Operating costs for USmajor airlinesare primarily aircraftoperating expenseincludingjet fuel,aircraft maintenance,depreciationandaircrewfor 44%, servicing expense for 29% (traffic 11%, passenger 11% and aircraft 7%), 14% for reservations and sales and 13% foroverheads(administration 6% and advertising 2%). An average US majorBoeing 757-200 flies 1,252 miles (2,015 km) stages 11.3 block hours per day and costs $2,550 per block hour: $923 of ownership, $590 of maintenance, $548 of fuel and $489 of crew; or $13.34 per 186 seats per block hour. For aBoeing 737-500,a low-cost carrier like Southwest have lower operating costs at $1,526 than a full service one like United at $2,974, and higherproductivitywith 399,746ASMper day against 264,284, resulting in a unit cost of 0.38 $cts/ASM against 1.13 $cts/ASM.[81]

McKinseyobserves that "newer technology, larger aircraft, and increasingly efficient operations continually drive down the cost of running an airline", from nearly 40 US cents perASKat the beginning of the jet age, to just above 10 cents since 2000. Those improvements were passed onto the customer due to high competition: fares have been falling throughout the history of airlines.[82]

See also:Aviation taxation and subsidies

Revenue

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Diagram of an airlineGlobal Distribution System

Airlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. The pricing of airline tickets has become increasingly complicated over the years and is now largely determined by computerizedyield managementsystems.

Because of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments.

Most airlines use differentiated pricing, a form ofprice discrimination,to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number oftravel classesfor pricing purposes.

A complicating factor is that of origin-destination control ( "O&D control" ). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for A$200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay A$1400. Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily.

The advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notablySabre,allowed airlines to easily performcost-benefit analyseson different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere).

The intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term "fare war"to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use theAirline Tariff Publishing Company(ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines toComputer Reservation Systemsacross the world.

The extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in "legacy" carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer pre-announced and simplified price structure, and sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately.

Computers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for "no-shows", but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled withoverbookingon high demand flights can help reduce this figure. This is especially crucial during tough economic times as airlines undertake massive cuts to ticket prices to retain demand.[83]

Over January/February 2018, the cheapest airline surveyed by price comparatorrome2riowas now-defunctTigerair Australiawith $0.06/km followed byAirAsia Xwith $0.07/km, while the most expensive wasCharterlines, Inc.with $1.26/km followed byBuddha Airwith $1.18/km.[84]

For theIATA,the global airline industryrevenuewas $754 billion in 2017 for a $38.4 billion collectiveprofit,and should rise by 10.7% to $834 billion in 2018 for a $33.8 billion profit forecast, down by 12% due to risingjet fuelandlaborcosts.[85]

The demand for air transport will be lesselasticforlonger flightsthan for shorter flights, and more elastic for leisure travel than forbusiness travel.[86]

Airlines often have a strongseasonality,with traffic low in winter and peaking in summer. In Europe the most extreme market are theGreek islandswith July/August having more than ten times the winter traffic, asJet2is the most seasonal amonglow-cost carrierswith July having seven times the January traffic, whereaslegacy carriersare much less with only 85/115% variability.[87]

Assets and financing

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The 'Golden Lounge' ofMalaysia AirlinesatKuala Lumpur International Airport(KLIA).

Airline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain; comparably Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (theBoeing 737and derivatives), with the now defunctEastern Air Lineswhich operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs.

A second financial issue is that ofhedgingoilandfuelpurchases, which are usually second only tolaborin its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. Legacy airlines, compared with new entrants, have been hit harder by rising fuel prices partly due to the running of older, less fuel efficient aircraft.[55]While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000–2005 period.

In view of the congestion apparent at many internationalairports,the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline.

If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. For example,Reagan National Airportattracts profitable routes due partly to its congestion, leaving less-profitable routes toBaltimore-Washington International AirportandDulles International Airport.[88]

Other factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long-distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. For example,LaGuardia Airportis the preferred airport for most ofManhattandue to its proximity, while long-distance routes must useJohn F. Kennedy International Airport's longer runways.

Airline alliances

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Main article:Airline alliance

The firstairline alliancewas formed in the 1930s when Pan Am and its subsidiary,Panair do Brasil,agreed to codeshare routes in Latin America when they overlapped with each other.[citation needed]

The 3 major airline alliances and the current fleet size of their home carriers (excluding subsidiaries, cargo and connecting partners) as of September 2024
Star Alliance
SkyTeam
Oneworld

Codesharinginvolves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this wasJapan Airlines' (JAL)codesharing partnership withAeroflotin the 1960s onTokyo–Moscowflights; Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights.[citation needed]Another example was theAustrian–Sabenapartnership on theVienna–Brussels–New York/JFK route during the late '60s, using a SabenaBoeing 707with Austrianlivery.[citation needed]

Since airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as "show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf" ), an airline that can codeshare with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago–Düsseldorfflight. The passenger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam (for example), and airline no. 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms to increase sales.

A more recent development is theairline alliance,which became prevalent in the late 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. The largest areStar Alliance,SkyTeamandOneworld,and these accounted for over 60% of global commercial air traffic as of 2015.[89]Alliances of airlines coordinate their passenger service programs (such asloungesandfrequent-flyer programs), offer specialinterlinetickets and often engage in extensivecodesharing(sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations—sometimes including cross-equity arrangements—in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline wasKLM,who partnered withNorthwest Airlines.Both airlines later entered the SkyTeam alliance after thefusion of KLM and Air Francein 2004.

Often the companies combineIToperations, or purchase fuel and aircraft as a bloc to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses.

Largest airlines

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Main article:World's largest airlines

Theworld's largest airlinescan be defined in several ways. As of 2019,American Airlines Groupwas the largest by fleet size,passengerscarried andrevenue passenger mile.Delta Air Lineswas the largest byrevenue,assetsvalue andmarket capitalization.Lufthansa Groupwas the largest by number ofemployees,FedEx Expressby freighttonne-kilometres,Turkish Airlinesby number of countries served andUPS Airlinesby number of destinations served[90](thoughUnited Airlineswas the largest passenger airline by number of destinations served).[91][92]

State support

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Historically, air travel has survived largely through state support, whether in the form of equity or subsidies. The airline industry as a whole has made a cumulative loss during its 100-year history.[93][94]

One argument is thatpositive externalities,such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such ashighwaysandrailways,both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world. Although many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, many large airlines today are privately owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles to maximize shareholder profit.[95]

In December 1991, the collapse of Pan Am, an airline often credited for shaping the international airline industry, highlighted the financial complexities faced by major airline companies.

Following the1978 deregulation,U.S. carriers did not manage to make an aggregateprofitfor 12 years in 31, including four years where combinedlossesamounted to $10 billion, but rebounded with eight consecutive years of profits since 2010, including its four with over $10 billion profits. They drop loss-making routes, avoidfare warsandmarket sharebattles, limitcapacitygrowth, addhubfeed withregional jetsto increase theirprofitability.They changeschedulesto create more connections, buy used aircraft, reduce international frequencies and leveragepartnershipsto optimize capacities and benefit from overseas connectivity.[61]

Environment

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Main article:Environmental impact of aviation
MODIStracking ofcontrailsgenerated by air traffic over the southeastern United States on 29 January 2004.

Aircraft engines emitnoise pollution,gases and particulate emissions, and contribute toglobal dimming.[96]

Growth of the industry in recent years raised a number of ecological questions.

Domestic air transport grew in China at 15.5 percent annually from 2001 to 2006. The rate of air travel globally increased at 3.7 percent per year over the same time. In the EUgreenhouse gas emissionsfrom aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006.[97]However it must be compared with the flights increase, only in UK, between 1990 and 2006 terminal passengers increased from 100 000 thousands to 250 000 thousands.,[98]according to AEA reports every year, 750 million passengers travel by European airlines, which also share 40% of merchandise value in and out of Europe.[99]Without even pressure from "green activists", targeting lower ticket prices, generally, airlines do what is possible to cut the fuel consumption (and gas emissions connected therewith). Further, according to some reports, it can be concluded that the last piston-powered aircraft were as fuel-efficient as the average jet in 2005.[100]

Despite continuing efficiency improvements from the major aircraft manufacturers, the expanding demand for global air travel has resulted in growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Currently, the aviation sector, including US domestic and global international travel, make approximately 1.6 percent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions per annum. North America accounts for nearly 40 percent of the world's GHG emissions from aviation fuel use.[101]

CO2emissions from thejet fuelburned per passenger on an average 3,200 kilometers (2,000 mi) airline flight is about 353 kilograms (776 pounds).[102]Loss of natural habitat potential associated with the jet fuel burned per passenger on a 3,200 kilometers (2,000 mi) airline flight is estimated to be 250 square meters (2700 square feet).[103]

In the context of climate change andpeak oil,there is a debate about possibletaxationof air travel and the inclusion of aviation in anemissions tradingscheme, with a view to ensuring that the totalexternal costsof aviation are taken into account.[104]

The airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent ofgreenhouse gasesemitted by the U.S. transportation sector.Boeingestimates thatbiofuelscould reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. The solution would be blending algae fuels with existing jet fuel:[105]

There are projects onelectric aircraft,and some of which are fully operational as of 2013.

Call signs

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Main article:Aviation call signs

Each operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses anairline call signwhen communicating with airports or air traffic control. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses aSpeedbirdcall-sign, named after the logo of one of its predecessors,BOAC,whileSkyEuropeusedRelax.

Personnel

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Theaircrewof aJetstarBoeing 787

The various types of airline personnel includeflight crew,responsible for the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew members include:pilots(captainandfirst officer:some older aircraft also required aflight engineerand/or anavigator);flight attendants(led by apurseron larger aircraft);In-flight security personnelon some airlines (most notablyEl Al)

Groundcrew,responsible for operations at airports, include Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible for certifying the aircraft for flight and management of aircraft maintenance;Aerospaceengineers, responsible for airframe, powerplant and electrical systems maintenance;Avionicsengineers responsible for avionics and instruments maintenance;Airframeandpowerplanttechnicians; Electric System technicians, responsible for maintenance of electrical systems;Flight dispatchers;Baggage handlers;Ramp Agents; Remote centralized weight and balancing;[107]Gate agents;Ticket agents; Passenger service agents (such asairline loungeemployees); Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport; Crew schedulers.

Airlines follow acorporatestructure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations (including flight safety), and passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the airline's hubs as well. Airlines employlawyersto deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks.[108]

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Map of scheduled airline traffic in 2009
Aircraft of various airlines parked side by side atTokyo Narita Airport,Japan

The pattern of ownership has been privatized since the mid-1980s, that is, the ownership has gradually changed from governments to private and individual sectors or organizations. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in all regions.[109]Many major airlines operating between the 1940s and 1980s were government-owned or government-established. However, most airlines from the earliest days of air travel in the 1920s and 1930s were personal businesses.[5]

Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but countries with a deregulated airline industry have more competition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Canada,Japan,Brazil,Indiaand other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been observed to be cyclical in its financial performance. Four or five years of poor earnings precede five or six years of improvement. But profitability even in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2–3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse.Warren Buffettin 1999 said "the money that had been made since the dawn of aviation by all of this country's airline companies was zero. Absolutely zero."[110]

As in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral partnerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between carriers, equity arrangements,mergers,ortakeovers.[111]Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, most consolidation takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of business since theAirline Deregulation Actin 1978. Many international airline managers are lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and efficiency.[citation needed]

Types

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There are several types of passenger airlines, mainly

See also

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Bibliography

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  1. "A history of the world's airlines",R.E.G. Davies,Oxford U.P, 1964
  2. "The airline encyclopedia, 1909–2000.” Myron J. Smith, Scarecrow Press, 2002
  3. "Flying Off Course: The Economics of International Airlines," 3rd edition. Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2002.
  4. "The Airline Business in the 21st Century." Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2001.
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