Wikipedia

Airliner

(Redirected fromAirliners)
"Airliners" redirects here. For the website, seeAirliners.net.

Anairlineris a type ofairplanefor transportingpassengersandair cargo.Such aircraft are most often operated byairlines.The modern and most common variant of the airliner is a long, tube shaped, andjet powered aircraft.The largest of them arewide-bodyjets which are also called twin-aisle because they generally have two separate aisles running from the front to the back of the passenger cabin. These are usually used forlong-haul flightsbetweenairline hubsand major cities. A smaller, more common class of airliners is thenarrow-bodyor single-aisle. These are generally used for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers than their wide-body counterparts.

AUnited AirlinesBoeing 737(foreground) and aVirgin AmericaAirbus A320(background), two of the world's most widely used airliners

Regional airlinerstypically seat fewer than 100 passengers and may be powered byturbofansorturboprops.These airliners are the non-mainlinecounterparts to the larger aircraft operated by the major carriers,legacy carriers,andflag carriers,and are used to feed traffic into the large airline hubs. These regional routes then form the spokes of a hub-and-spoke air transport model.

The lightest aircraft are short-haul regional feeder airliner type aircraft that carry a small number of passengers are called commuter aircraft, commuterliners, feederliners, andair taxis,depending on their size, engines, how they are marketed, region of the world, and seating configurations. TheBeechcraft 1900,for example, has only 19 seats.

History

edit

Emergence

edit

When theWright brothersmade the world's first sustainedheavier-than-air flight,they laid the foundation for what would become a major transport industry. Their flight, performed in theWright Flyerduring 1903,[1]was just 11 years before what is often defined as the world's first airliner.[2]By the 1960s, airliners had expanded capabilities, making a significant impact on global society, economics, and politics.[3]

Sikorsky Ilya Muromets

During 1913,Igor Sikorskydeveloped the first large multi-engine airplane, theRussky Vityaz.[4][5]This aircraft was subsequently refined into the more practicalIlya Muromets,being furnished with dual controls for a pilot and copilot and a comfortablecabinwith a lavatory, cabin heating and lighting.[6] This large four-engine biplane was further adapted into an earlybomber aircraft,preceding subsequent transport and bomber aircraft.[6] It first flew on 10 December 1913 and took off for its first demonstration flight with 16 passengers aboard on 25 February 1914. However, it was never used as a commercial airliner due to the onset of theFirst World Warwhich led to military applications being prioritised.[7][8]

Interwar period

edit

In 1919, shortly after the end of the First World War, large numbers of ex-military aircraft flooded the market. One such aircraft was the FrenchFarman F.60 Goliath,which had originally been designed as a long-rangeheavy bomber;a number were converted for commercial use into passenger airliners starting in 1919, being able to accommodate a maximum of 14 seated passengers. and around 60 were built. Initially, several publicity flights were made, including one on 8 February 1919, when the Goliath flew 12 passengers fromToussus-le-NobletoRAF Kenley,nearCroydon,despite having no permission from the British authorities to land. Dozens of early airlines subsequently procured the type.[9]One high-profile flight, made on 11 August 1919, involved an F.60 flying eight passengers and a ton of supplies from Paris viaCasablancaandMogadorto Koufa, 180 km (110 mi) north ofSaint-Louis, Senegal,flying more than 4,500 km (2,800 mi).[10]

Another important airliner built in 1919 was theAirco DH.16;a redesignedAirco DH.9Awith a widerfuselageto accommodate an enclosed cabin seating four passengers, plus pilot in an open cockpit. In March 1919, the prototype first flew atHendon Aerodrome.Nine aircraft were built, all but one being delivered to the nascent airline,Aircraft Transport and Travel,which used the first aircraft for pleasure flying, and on 25 August 1919, it inaugurated the first scheduled international airline service from London to Paris.[11]One aircraft was sold to the River Plate Aviation Company inArgentina,to operate a cross-river service betweenBuenos AiresandMontevideo.[11] Meanwhile, the competingVickersconverted its successful First World War era bomber, theVickers Vimy,into a civilian version, the Vimy Commercial. It was redesigned with a larger-diameter fuselage (largely ofspruceplywood), and first flew from the Joyce Green airfield inKenton 13 April 1919.[12][13]

The world's first all-metal transport aircraft was theJunkers F.13,which also made its first flight in 1919.[14]Junkers marketed the aircraft towards business travellers and commercial operators, and European entrepreneurs bought examples for their private use and business trips. Over 300 Junkers F 13s were built between 1919 and 1932.[15] The DutchFokkercompany produced theFokker F.II,then the enlargedF.III.[16]These were used by the Dutch airlineKLM,including on its Amsterdam-London service in 1921. A relatively reliable aircraft for the era, the Fokkers were flying to destinations across Europe, including Bremen, Brussels, Hamburg, and Paris.[17]

TheHandley Pagecompany in Britain produced theHandley Page Type W,its first civil transport aircraft. It housed two crew in an opencockpitand 15 passengers in an enclosed cabin. Powered by two 450 hp (340 kW)Napier Lionengines, the prototype first flew on 4 December 1919, shortly after it was displayed at the 1919Paris Air ShowatLe Bourget.It was ordered by the Belgian firmSabena,a further ten Type Ws wereproduced under licensein Belgium bySABCA.[18]In 1921 theAir Ministryordered three aircraft, built as the W.8b, for use byHandley Page Transport,and later byImperial Airways,on services toParisandBrussels.[19]

In France, theBleriot-SPAD S.33was introduced during the early 1920s.[20]It was commercially successful, initially serving the Paris-Londonroute, and later oncontinentalroutes. The enclosed cabin could carry four passengers with an extra seat in the cockpit. It was further developed into theBlériot-SPAD S.46.Throughout the 1920s, companies in Britain and France were at the forefront of the civil airliner industry.[21]

By 1921, the capacity of airliners needed to be increased to achieve more favourable economics. The English companyde Havilland,built the 10-passengerDH.29monoplane,[22]while starting work on the design of the DH.32, an eight-seaterbiplanewith a more economical but less powerfulRolls-Royce Eagleengine.[23]For more capacity, DH.32 development was replaced by theDH.34biplane, accommodating 10 passengers.[24]A commercially successful aircraft,Daimler Airwayordered a batch of nine.[22]

TheFord Trimotorhad two engines mounted on the wings and one in the nose, and a slabsided body, it carried eight passengers and was produced from 1925 to 1933.[25]It was an important early airliner in America. It was used by the predecessor toTrans World Airlines,and by other airlines long after production ceased. The Trimotor helped to popularise numerous aspects of modern aviation infrastructure, including pavedrunways,passenger terminals,hangars,airmail,andradio navigation.[25][26]Pan Amopened up transoceanic service in the late 1920s and early 1930s, based on a series of large seaplanes – theSikorsky S-38throughSikorsky S-42.[27][28]

By the 1930s, the airliner industry had matured and large consolidated national airlines were established with regular international services that spanned the globe, includingImperial Airwaysin Britain,Lufthansain Germany, KLM in the Netherlands, andUnited Airlinesin America. Multi-engined aircraft were now capable of transporting dozens of passengers in comfort.[29]

During the 1930s, the Britishde Havilland Dragonemerged as a short-haul, low-capacity airliner. Its relatively simple design could carry six passengers, each with 45 lb (20 kg) of luggage, on the London-Paris route on a fuel consumption of 13 gal (49 L) per hour.[30]The DH.84 Dragon entered worldwide service. During early August 1934, one performed the first non-stop flight between the Canadian mainland and Britain in 30 hours 55 minutes, although the intended destination had originally beenBaghdadinIraq.[31][32]British production of the Dragon ended in favour of thede Havilland Dragon Rapide,a faster and more comfortable successor.[33]

By November 1934, series production of the Dragon Rapide had commenced.[34]De Havilland invested into advanced features including elongated rear windows, cabin heating, thickened wing tips, and a strengthened airframe for a higher gross weight of 5,500 lb (2,500 kg).[35]Later aircraft were amongst the first airliners to be fitted withflapsfor improved landing performance, along with downwards-facing recognition light and metal propellers, which were often retrofitted to older aircraft.[36]It was also used in military roles;[34]civil Dragon Rapides wereimpressedinto military service during theSecond World War.[37]

TheDouglas DC-3appeared in 1935

Metal airliners came into service in the 1930s. In the United States, theBoeing 247,[38]and the 14-passengerDouglas DC-2,[39]flew during the first half of the decade, while the more powerful, faster, 21–32 passengerDouglas DC-3first appeared in 1935. DC-3s were produced in quantity for theSecond World Warand were sold as surplus afterward, becoming widespread within the commercial sector. It was one of first airliners to be profitable without the support of postal or government subsidies.[40][41]

Long-haul flights were expanded during the 1930s as Pan American Airways and Imperial Airways competed ontransatlantic travelusing fleets offlying boats,such as the BritishShort Empireand the AmericanBoeing 314.[42]Imperial Airways' order for 28 Empire flying boats was viewed by some as a bold gamble.[43]At the time, flying boats were the only practical means of building aircraft of such size and weight as land-based aircraft would have unfeasibly poor field performance.[43]One Boeing 314,registration NC18602,became the first commercial plane to circumnavigate the globe during December 1941 and January 1942.[44]

The postwar era

edit
Main article:Jet airliner

United Kingdom

edit
Prototype of thede Havilland Cometin 1949, the first jet airliner in the world

In the United Kingdom, theBrabazon Committeewas formed in 1942 underJohn Moore-Brabazon, 1st Baron Brabazon of Tarato forecast advances in aviation technology and the air transport needs of the postwarBritish Empire(in South Asia, Africa, and the Near andFar East) and Commonwealth (Australia,Canada,New Zealand).[45][46]For British use, multi-engine aircraft types were allegedly split between the US formilitary transport aircraftand the UK forheavy bombers.[citation needed]That such a policy was suggested or implemented have been disputed, at least bySir Peter Masefield.[47]British aircraft manufacturers were tied up to fulfill military requirements, and had no free capacity to address other matters though the war.[48]

The committee final report pushed four designs for the state-owned airlinesBritish Overseas Airways Corporation(BOAC) and laterBritish European Airways(BEA): three piston-powered aircraft of varying sizes, and ajet-powered100-seat design at the request ofGeoffrey de Havilland,involved in the first jet fighters development.

After a brief contest, the Type I design was given to theBristol Aeroplane Company,building on a "100 tonbomber"submission.[49]This evolved into theBristol Brabazonbut this project folded in 1951 as BOAC lost interest and the first aircraft needed a costly wing re-design to accommodate theBristol Proteusengine.[50]

The Type II was split between thede Havilland DoveandAirspeed Ambassadorconventional piston designs,[51]and theVickersmodel powered by newly developedturboprops:first flown in 1948, theVC.2 Viceroywas the first turboprop design to enter service;[52]a commercial success with 445 Viscounts built.[53]The Type III requirement led to the conventionalAvro Tudorand the more ambitiousBristol Britannia,although both aircraft suffered protracted developments,[54]with the latter entering service with BOAC in February 1957, over seven years following its order.[55]

The jet-powered Type IV became thede Havilland Cometin 1949. It featured an aerodynamically clean design with fourde Havilland Ghostturbojet engines buried in the wings, a pressurised fuselage, and large square windows. On 2 May 1952, the Comet took off on the world's firstjetlinerflight carrying fare-paying passengers and simultaneously inaugurated scheduled service between London and Johannesburg.[56][57]However, roughly one year after introduction, three Comets broke up mid-flight due to airframemetal fatigue,not well understood at the time.[58][59]The Comet was grounded and tested to discover the cause, while rival manufacturers heeded the lessons learned while developing their own aircraft.[60]The improved Comet 2 and the prototype Comet 3 culminated in the redesigned Comet 4 series which debuted in 1958 and had a productive career over 30 years, but sales never fully recovered.[61][62]

By the 1960s, the UK had lost the airliner market to the US due to the Comet disaster and a smaller domestic market, not regained by later designs like theBAC 1-11,Vickers VC10,andHawker Siddeley Trident.The STAC committee was formed to considersupersonicdesigns and worked with Bristol to create theBristol 223,a 100-passenger transatlantic airliner. The effort was later merged with similar efforts in France to create theConcordesupersonic airliner to share the cost.[63][64]

United States

edit
United AirlinesDC-6,Stapleton Airport, Denver, September 1966

The first batch of theDouglas DC-4swent to the U.S. Army and Air Forces,[when?]and was named theC-54 Skymaster.Some ex-military DC-6s were later converted into airliners, with both passenger and cargo versions flooding the market shortly after the war's end. Douglas also developed a pressurized version of the DC-4, which it designated theDouglas DC-6.Rival company Lockheed produced theConstellation,a triple-tailed aircraft with a wider fuselage than the DC-4.

TheBoeing 377 Stratocruiserwas based on theC-97 Stratofreightermilitary transport, it had a double deck and a pressurized fuselage.

Convair produced theConvair 240,a 40-person pressurized airplane; 566 examples flew. Convair later developed theConvair 340,which was slightly larger and could accommodate between 44 and 52 passengers, of which 311 were produced. The firm also commenced work on theConvair 37,a relatively large double-deck airliner that would have served transcontinentalroutes; however, the project was abandoned due to a lack of customer demand and its high development costs.[citation needed]

Rival planes include theMartin 2-0-2andMartin 4-0-4,but the 2-0-2 had safety concerns and was unpressurized, while the 4-0-4 only sold around 100 units.[63]

During the postwar years, engines became much larger and more powerful, and safety features such as deicing, navigation, and weather information were added to the planes. American planes were allegedly more comfortable and had superior flight decks than those produced in Europe.[63][page needed]

France

edit

In 1936, the French Air Ministry requested transatlantic flying boats that could hold at least 40 passengers, leading to threeLatécoère 631sintroduced byAir Francein July 1947.[65]However, two crashed and the third was removed from service over safety concerns. TheSNCASE Languedocwas the first French post-war airliner.[66]Accommodating up to 44 seats, 40 aircraft were completed for Air France between October 1945 and April 1948.[67][63]Air France withdrew the last Languedoc from its domestic routes in 1954, being replaced by later designs.[66]First flying in February 1949, the four-enginedBreguet Deux-Pontswas a double-decker transport for passengers and cargo.[68]Air France used it on its busiest routes, including fromParisto the Mediterranean area and toLondon.[68]

ASud-Aviation Caravelle

TheSud-Aviation Caravellewas developed during the late 1950s as the first short range jet airliner. The nose and cockpit layout were licensed from thede Havilland Comet,along with some fuselage elements.[69]Entering service in mid 1959, 172 Caravelles had been sold within four years and six versions were in production by 1963.[70]Sud Aviation then focused its design team on a Caravelle successor.[69]

TheSuper-Caravellewas asupersonic transportproject of similar size and range to the Caravelle. It was merged with the similarBristol Aeroplane Companyproject into the Anglo-FrenchConcorde.[69]The Concorde entered service in January 1967 as the second and last commercialsupersonic transport,[71][72]after large overruns and delays, costing £1.3 billion.[73]All subsequent French airliner efforts were part of theAirbuspan-European initiative.

USSR

edit

Soon after the war, most of the Soviet fleet of airliners consisted of DC-3s orLisunov Li-2s.These planes were in desperate need of replacement, and in 1946, theIlyushin Il-12made its first flight. The Il-12 was very similar in design to American Convair 240, except was unpressurized. In 1953, theIlyushin Il-14made its first flight, and this version was equipped with much more powerful engines. The main contribution that the Soviets made in regards to airliners was theAntonov An-2.This plane is a biplane, unlike most of the other airliners, and sold more units than any other transport plane.[63]

Types

edit

Narrow-body airliners

edit
TheAirbus A320 familyis the most orderednarrow-body aircraft

The most common airliners are thenarrow-body aircraft,or single-aisles. The earliestjet airlinerswere narrowbodies: the initialde Havilland Comet,theBoeing 707and its competitor theDouglas DC-8. They were followed by smaller models: theDouglas DC-9and itsMD-80/MD-90/Boeing 717derivatives; theBoeing 727,737and757using the 707 cabin cross-section; or theTupolev Tu-154,Ilyushin Il-18,and theIlyushin Il-62.

Currently produced narrow-body airliners include theAirbus A220,A320 family,Boeing 737,Embraer E-Jet familyandComac C919,generally used formedium-haul flightswith 100 to 240 passengers. They could be joined by the in-developmentIrkut MC-21.

Wide-body airliners

edit
The firstwide-body aircraft,theBoeing 747,rolled out in September 1968

The largerwide-body aircraft,or twin-aisle as they have two separate aisles in the cabin, are used for long-haul flights. The first was theBoeing 747quadjet, followed by the trijets: theLockheed L-1011and theDouglas DC-10,then itsMD-11stretch. Then other quadjets were introduced: theIlyushin Il-86andIl-96,theAirbus A340and the double-deckA380. Twinjets were also put into service: theAirbus A300/A310,A330andA350;the767,777and787.

Regional aircraft

edit
Over 1,800Bombardier CRJshave been delivered

Regional airlinersseat fewer than 100 passengers. These smaller aircraft are often used to feed traffic at largeairline hubsto larger aircraft operated by the majormainline carriers,legacy carriers,orflag carriers;often sharing the same livery. Regional jetsinclude theBombardier CRJ100/200andBombardier CRJ700 series,or theEmbraer ERJ family. Currently producedturbopropregional airliners include theDash-8series, and theATR 42/72.

Commuter aircraft

edit
Beechcraft 1900,short-range commuter aircraft

Light aircraftcan be used as small commuter airliners, or asair taxis. Twin turboprops carrying up to 19 passengers include theBeechcraft 1900,Fairchild Metro,Jetstream 31,DHC-6 Twin OtterandEmbraer EMB 110 Bandeirante. Smaller airliners include the single-engined turboprops like theCessna CaravanandPilatus PC-12;or twin piston-powered aircraft made byCessna,Piper,Britten-Norman,andBeechcraft. They often lacklavatories,stand-up cabins,pressurization,galleys,overhead storage bins, reclining seats, or aflight attendant.

Engines

edit

Until the beginning of theJet Age,piston engineswere common onproplinerssuch as the Douglas DC-3. Nearly all modern airliners are now powered byturbineengines, eitherturbofansorturboprops.Gas turbine engines operate efficiently at much higher altitudes, are more reliable than piston engines, and produce less vibration and noise. The use of a common fuel type – kerosene-based jet fuel – is another advantage.

Airliner variants

edit

Some variants of airliners have been developed for carrying freight or for luxurycorporate use.Many airliners have also been modified for government use asVIPtransports and for military functions such as airborne tankers (for example, theVickers VC10,Lockheed L-1011,Boeing 707), air ambulance (USAF/USNMcDonnell Douglas DC-9),reconnaissance(Embraer ERJ 145,Saab 340,andBoeing 737), as well as for troop-carrying roles.

Configuration

edit

Modern jetliners are usually low-wing designs with two engines mounted underneath theswept wings,whileturbopropaircraft are slow enough to use straight wings. Smaller airliners sometimes have their engines mounted on either side of the rear fuselage. Numerous advantages and disadvantages exist due to this arrangement.[74]Perhaps the most important advantage to mounting the engines under the wings is that the total aircraft weight is more evenly distributed across the wingspan, which imposes lessbending momenton the wings and allows for a lighter wing structure. This factor becomes more important as aircraft weight increases, and no in-production airliners have both a maximum takeoff weight more than 50 tons and engines mounted on the fuselage. TheAntonov An-148is the only in-production jetliner with high-mounted wings (usually seen inmilitary transport aircraft), which reduces the risk of damage from unpaved runways.

Except for a few experimental or military designs, all aircraft built to date have had all of their weightliftedoff the ground by airflow across the wings. In terms ofaerodynamics,the fuselage has been a mere burden.NASAandBoeingare currently developing ablended wing bodydesign in which the entire airframe, from wingtip to wingtip, contributes lift. This promises a significant gain infuel efficiency.[75]

Current manufacturers

edit
Assembly of aBoeing 767nose section

The major manufacturers withlarge aircraftairliners currently in production include:

The narrow-body and wide-body airliner market is dominated by Airbus and Boeing, and theregional airlinermarket is shared betweenATR Aircraft,De Havilland Canada,andEmbraer.

Setting up a reliablecustomer supportnetwork, ensuring uptime, availability and support 24/7 and anywhere, is critical for the success of airliner manufacturers. Boeing and Airbusare ranked 1 and 2 in customer satisfaction for aftermarket support by a survey byInside MROandAir Transport World,and this is a reason whyMitsubishi Aircraft Corporationpurchased theBombardier CRJprogram. It is anentry barrierfor new entrants like theXian MA700andComac C919,with no credible previous experience with theMA60,or theIrkut MC-21after theSukhoi Superjet 100.[76]

Notable airliners

edit
Development of the capabilities of long-haul airliners shown by some notable ones
De Havilland Comet– the firstjetliner

In production aircraft

edit
Mainline airliners as of November 2019[78]
Model First flight Net orders Deliveries Backlog MTOW (t) typ. seats Range (nmi)
Airbus A220 16/09/2013 397 45 352 60.8-67.6 116-141 2,950-3,200
Airbus A320 family(excl. A318) 22/02/1987 14,096 8,195 5,901 75.5-97 124-206 3,200-4,000
Airbus A330/A330neo 02/11/1992 1,613 1,333 280 242-251 247-287 6,350-8,150
Airbus A350 14/06/2013 889 202 687 280-316 325-366 8,100-8,400
Boeing 737 NG/737 MAX 09/02/1997 11,447 6,775 4,672 70.1-88.3 126-188 2,935-3,825
Boeing 767-300F 20/06/1995 300 233 67 185 3,255
Boeing 777-300ER/F/777X 24/02/2003 1,356 939 417 349.7-351 336-400 7,370-8,700
Boeing 787 15/12/2009 1,377 728 652 227.9-250.8 242-330 6,430-7,635

Fleet

edit

The airliner fleet went from 13,500 in 2000 to 25,700 in 2017: 16% to 30.7% in Asia/Pacific (2,158 to 7,915), 34.7% to 23.6% in USA (4,686 to 6,069) and 24% to 20.5% in Europe (3,234 to 5,272).[79]

In 2018, there were 29,398 airliners in service: 26,935 passenger transports and 2,463 freighters, while 2,754 others were stored. The largest fleet was in Asia-Pacific with 8,808 (5% stored), followed by 8,572 in North America (10% stored), 7,254 in Europe (9% stored), 2,027 in Latin America, 1,510 in Middle East and 1,347 in Africa. Narrowbody are dominant with 16,235, followed by 5,581 Widebodies, 3,743 Turboprops, 3,565 Regional jets and 399 Others.[80]

Largest in service mainline fleet as of August 2017[81]
Model 2018[80] 2017 2016 2015[82]
Airbus A320 family 7,132 6,838 6,516 6,041
Boeing 737 NG 6,373 5,968 5,556 5,115
Boeing 777 1,422 1,387 1,319 1,258
Airbus A330 1,269 1,214 1,169 1,093
Boeing 737 Classic/original 818 890 931 1,006
Boeing 767 740 744 738 762
Boeing 787 696 554 422 288
Boeing 757 669 689 688 737
Boeing 717/MD-80/90/DC-9 516 607 653 668
Boeing 747 475 489 503 558
Largest in service regional fleet as of August 2017[81]
Model 2018[80] 2017 2016 2015[82]
Embraer E-jets 1,358 1,235 1,140 1,102
ATR42/72 994 950 913 886
Bombardier Q400 956 506 465 451
Bombardier CRJ700/900/1000 775 762 747 696
Bombardier CRJ100/200 515 516 557 558
Embraer ERJ 145 family 531 454 528 606
Beechcraft 1900-100/200/300 420 328 338 347
de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter 330 270 266 268
Saab 340 215 225 231 228

By the end of 2018, there were 1,826 parked or in storage jetliners out of 29,824 in service (6.1%): 1,434 narrowbodies and 392 widebodies, down from 9.8% of the fleet at the end of 2012 and 11.3% at the end of 2001.[83]

Market

edit

Since it began, thejet airlinermarket had a recurring pattern of seven years of growth followed by three years of deliveries falling 30–40%, except a steady growth from 2004 due to theeconomic rise of Chinagoing from 3% of world market in 2001 to 22% in 2015, expensivejet fueltill 2014 stimulating old jets replacement allowed by lowinterest ratessince 2008, and strongairlinepassenger demand since.[84] In 2004, 718 Airbus and Boeings were delivered, worth $39.3 billion; 1,466 are expected in 2017, worth $104.4 billion: a growth by 3.5 from 2004 to 2020 is unprecedented and highly unusual for any mature market.[85]

Manufacturer 2016 orders and deliveries[86]
deliveries values ($bn) net orders backlog
Boeing 726 57.8 563 5,660
Airbus 685 45.5 711 6,845
Embraer 108 2.9 39 444
Bombardier 81 1.9 162 437
ATR 73 1.5 36 236
Other 31 0.5 72 1,080
Total 1,704 110.1 1,583 14,702

In 2016, the deliveries went for 38% in Asia-Pacific, 25% in Europe, 22% in North America, 7% in Middle East, 6% in South America and 2% in Africa. 1,020 narrowbodies were delivered and their backlog reach 10891: 4,991 A320neo, 644 A320ceo; 3,593 737 Max, 835 737NG, 348 CSeries, 305 C919 and 175 MC-21; while 398 widebodies were delivered: 137 Dreamliners and 99 B777 for Boeing (65%) against 63 A330 and 49 A350 for Airbus, more than 2,400 widebodies were in backlog, led by the A350 with 753 (31%) then the Boeing 787 with 694 (28%).[86]

The most important driver of orders is airlineprofitability,itself driven mainly by worldGDP growthbut alsosupply and demandbalance andoil prices,while new programmes byAirbus and Boeinghelp to stimulate aircraft demand. In 2016, 38% of the 25 years old airliners had been retired, 50% of the 28 years old: there will be 523 aircraft reaching 25 years old in 2017, 1,127 in 2026 and 1,628 in 2041. Deliveries rose by 80% from 2004 to 2016, they represented 4.9% of the fleet in 2004 and 5.9% in 2016, down from 8% previously.[87] Oil prices andairshoworders are trending together.[88]

In 2020, deliveries were down by more than 50% compared to 2019 due to theimpact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation,after 10 years of growth.[89]

Wide body airliners of various airlines at Tokyo Narita Airport in April 2012

Storage, scrapping and recycling

edit
Main article:Aircraft recycling

Storage can be an adjustment variable for the airliner fleet: as Jan–Apr 2018RPKsare up by 7% over a year andFTKsup by 5.1%, theIATAreports 81 net aircraft went back from storage (132 recalled and 51 stored) in April. It is the second month of storage contraction after eight of expansion and the largest in four years, while new aircraft deliveries fell slightly to 448 from 454 due to supply-chain issues and in-service issuesgroundingothers. Retirements were down by 8% and utilization up by 2%, according toCanaccord Genuity,driving used aircraft and engines values up whileMROshops have unexpected demand for legacy products like thePW4000andGE CF6.[90]

Cabin configurations and features

edit
Interior of aQatar AirwaysAirbus.Video systems (the vertical white panels) are visible above the very centre seats of the aircraft
Main article:Aircraft cabin

An airliner will usually have several classes of seating:first class,business class,and/oreconomy class(which may be referred to as coach class or tourist class, and sometimes has a separate "premium" economy section with more legroom and amenities). The seats in more expensive classes are wider, more comfortable, and have more amenities such as "lie flat" seats for more comfortable sleeping on long flights. Generally, the more expensive the class, the better the beverage and meal service.

Domestic flights generally have a two-class configuration, usually first or business class and coach class, although many airlines instead offer all-economy seating. International flights generally have either a two-class configuration or a three-class configuration, depending on the airline, route and aircraft type. Many airliners offermovies or audio/videoon demand (this is standard in first and business class on many international flights and may be available on economy). Cabins of all classes havelavatoryfacilities, reading lights, andair vents.Some larger airliners have arest compartmentreserved for crew use during breaks.

Seats

edit
Main article:Airline seat

The types of seats that are provided and how much legroom is given to each passenger are decisions made by the individual airlines, not the aircraft manufacturers. Seats are mounted in "tracks" on the floor of the cabin and can be moved back and forth by the maintenance staff or removed altogether. One driver of airline profitability is how many passengers can be seated in economy class cabins, meaning that airline companies have an incentive to place seats close together to fit as many passengers in as possible.[91]In contrast, ‘premium class’ seat configurations provide more space for travelers.[92]

Passengers seated in anexit row(the row of seats adjacent to anemergency exit) usually have substantially more legroom than those seated in the remainder of the cabin, while the seats directly in front of the exit row may have less legroom and may not even recline (for evacuation safety reasons). However, passengers seated in an exit row may be required to assist cabin crew during anemergency evacuationof the aircraft opening the emergency exit and assisting fellow passengers to the exit. As a precaution, many airlines prohibit young people under the age of 15 from being seated in the exit row.[93]

The seats are designed to withstand strong forces so as not to break or come loose from their floor tracks duringturbulenceor accidents. The backs of seats are often equipped with a fold-down tray for eating, writing, or as a place to set up a portable computer, or a music or video player. Seats without another row of seats in front of them have a tray that is either folded into the armrest or that clips into brackets on the underside of the armrests. However, seats in premium cabins generally have trays in the armrests or clip-on trays, regardless of whether there is another row of seats in front of them. Seatbacks now often feature small colourLCDscreens for videos, television and video games. Controls for this display as well as an outlet to plug in audio headsets are normally found in the armrest of each seat.

Overhead bins

edit
Further information:Overhead storage
Overhead bins aboard aSukhoi Superjet 100

The overhead bins, also known as overhead lockers or pivot bins, are used for stowing carry-on baggage and other items. While the airliner manufacturer will normally specify a standard version of the product to supply, airlines can choose to have bins of differing size, shape, or color installed. Over time, overhead bins evolved out of what were originally overhead shelves that were used for little more than coat and briefcase storage. As concerns about falling debris during turbulence or in accidents increased, enclosed bins became[when?]the norm. Bins have increased in size to accommodate the larger carry-on baggage passengers can bring onto the aircraft. Newer bin designs have included a handrail, useful when moving through the cabin.[94]

Passenger service units

edit

Above the passenger seats arePassenger Service Units(PSU). These typically contain reading lights, air vents, and a flight attendant call light. On most narrowbody aircraft (and someAirbus A300sandA310s), the flight attendant call button and the buttons to control the reading lights are located directly on the PSU, while on most widebody aircraft, the flight attendant call button and the reading light control buttons are usually part of thein-flight entertainmentsystem. The units frequently have small "Fasten Seat Belt" and "No Smoking" illuminated signage and may also contain a speaker for the cabin public address system. On some newer aircraft, a "Turn off electronic devices" sign is used instead of the "No Smoking" sign, as smoking isn't permitted on board the aircraft anyway.

The PSU will also normally contain the drop-downoxygen maskswhich are activated if there is a sudden drop in cabin pressure. These are supplied with oxygen by means of achemical oxygen generator.By using a chemical reaction rather than a connection to an oxygen tank, these devices supply breathing oxygen for long enough for the airliner to descend to thicker, more breathable air. Oxygen generators do generate considerable heat in the process. Because of this, the oxygen generators are thermally shielded and are only allowed in commercial airliners when properly installed – they are not permitted to be loaded as freight on passenger-carrying flights.ValuJet Flight 592crashed on May 11, 1996, as a result of improperly loaded chemical oxygen generators.

Cabin pressurization

edit
Main article:Cabin pressurization

Airliners developed since the 1940s have had pressurized cabins (or, more accurately, pressurized hulls including baggage holds) to enable them to carry passengers safely at high altitudes where low oxygen levels and air pressure would otherwise cause sickness or death. High altitude flight enabled airliners to fly above most weather systems that cause turbulent or dangerous flying conditions, and also to fly faster and further as there is less drag due to the lower air density. Pressurization is applied using compressed air, in most cases bled from the engines, and is managed by anenvironmental control systemwhich draws in clean air, and vents stale air out through a valve.

Pressurization presents design and construction challenges to maintain the structural integrity and sealing of the cabin and hull and to preventrapid decompression.Some of the consequences include small round windows, doors that open inwards and are larger than the door hole, and anemergency oxygen system.

To maintain a pressure in the cabin equivalent to an altitude close to sea level would, at a cruising altitude around 10,000 m (33,000 ft), create a pressure difference between inside the aircraft and outside the aircraft that would require greater hull strength and weight. Most people do not suffer ill effects up to an altitude of 1,800–2,500 m (5,900–8,200 ft), and maintaining cabin pressure at this equivalent altitude significantly reduces the pressure difference and therefore the required hull strength and weight. A side effect is that passengers experience some discomfort as the cabin pressure changes during ascent and descent to the majority of airports, which are at low altitudes.

Cabin climate control

edit

The air bled from the engines is hot and requires cooling byair conditioningunits. It is also extremely dry at cruising altitude, and this causes sore eyes, dry skin andmucosaon long flights. Althoughhumidificationtechnology could raise itsrelative humidityto comfortable middle levels, this is not done since humidity promotescorrosionto the inside of the hull and riskscondensationwhich couldshortelectrical systems, so for safety reasons it is deliberately kept to a low value, around 10%. Another problem of the air coming from the ventilation (unto which the oil lubrication system of the engines is hooked up) is that fumes from components in the synthetic oils can sometimes travel along, causing passengers, pilots and crew to be intoxicated. The illness it causes is calledaerotoxic syndrome.

Baggage holds

edit
Airbus A320baggage hold
Loading luggage onto aBoeing 747atBoston Logan Airport,during snow
AnAirbus A300's cross-section, showing cargo (withUnit Load Devices), passenger, and overhead areas
Boeing 747front lower compartment. Note the rollers forULDson the floor and the partition labeled "Caution: Do Not Hit – Potable Water Tank Inside".

Airliners must have space on board to store "checked" baggage – that which will not safely fit in the passenger cabin.

Designed to hold baggage as well as freight, these compartments are called "cargo bins", "baggage holds", "luggage holds", or occasionally "pits". Occasionally baggage holds may be referred to ascargo deckson the largest of aircraft. These compartments can be accessed through doors on the outside of the aircraft.

Depending on the aircraft, baggage holds are normally inside the hull and are therefore pressurized just like the passenger cabin although they may not be heated. While lighting is normally installed for use by the loading crew, typically the compartment is unlit when the door is closed.

Baggage holds on modern airliners are equipped with fire detection equipment and larger aircraft have automated or remotely activated fire-fighting devices installed.

Narrow-body airliners

edit

Most "narrow-body"airliners with more than 100 seats have space below the cabin floor, while smaller aircraft often have a special compartment separate from the passenger area but on the same level.

Baggage is normally stacked within the bin by hand, sorted by destination category. Netting that fits across the width of the bin is secured to limit movement of the bags. Airliners often carry items offreightand mail. These may be loaded separately from the baggage or mixed in if they are bound for the same destination. For securing bulky items "hold down" rings are provided to tie items into place.

Wide-body airliners

edit

"Wide-body"airliners frequently have a compartment like the ones described above, typically called a" bulk bin ". It is normally used for late arriving luggage or bags which may have been checked at the gate.

However, most baggage and loose freight items are loaded into containers calledUnit Load Devices(ULDs), often referred to as "cans". ULDs come in a variety of sizes and shapes, but the most common model is theLD3.This particular container has approximately the same height as the cargo compartment and fits across half of its width.

ULDs are loaded with baggage and are transported to the aircraft ondolly cartsand loaded into the baggage hold by a loader designed for the task. By means ofbeltsandrollersan operator can maneuver the ULD from the dolly cart, up to the aircraft baggage hold door, and into the aircraft. Inside the hold, the floor is also equipped with drive wheels and rollers that an operator inside can use to move the ULD properly into place. Locks in the floor are used to hold the ULD in place during flight.

For consolidated freight loads, like a pallet of boxes or an item too oddly shaped to fit into a container, flat metal pallets that resemble large baking sheets that are compatible with the loading equipment are used.

See also

edit

Lists

edit

Topics

edit

References

edit
  1. ^"Machine That Flies / What the Wright Brothers' Invention Has Accomplished".The Newark Daily Advocate.Newark, Ohio, U.S. 28 December 1903. p. 7.
  2. ^Tise, Larry E. Conquering the Sky. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2009. Print.
  3. ^Bernardo, James V. Aviation and Space: In the Modern World. New York: E.P. Dutton. 1968.
  4. ^Sergei Sikorsky (2007).The Sikorsky Legacy-Bolshoi Baltisky(1st ed.). Arcadia Publishing. p. 27.ISBN978-0738549958.
  5. ^Page, Walter Hines; Page, Arthur Wilson (July 1914)."Man And His Machines: A Russian" Airbus "".The World's Work: A History of Our Time.XLIV(2): 360.Retrieved4 August2009.
  6. ^abRichard P. Hallion (July 2008)."Airplanes that Transformed Aviation".Air & space magazine.Smithsonian.
  7. ^Loftin, Laurence K. Jr."Part I: The Age of Propellers, Chapter 2: Design Exploration, 1914–18, Heavy Bombers."Archived2018-05-29 at theWayback MachineQuest for Performance: The Evolution of Modern Aircraft.Washington, D.C.: NASA Scientific and Technical Information Branch, 2004. Retrieved: 25 April 2011.
  8. ^Finne, K.N. (1987).Igor Sikorsky: The Russian Years.translated and adapted by Von Hardesty; Carl J. Bobrow and Von Hardesty, eds. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. p. 40.ISBN0-87474-274-9.
  9. ^"The story of Goliath".Aeroplane(October 2015). Stamford: Key Publishing: 56–61.ISSN0143-7240.
  10. ^"Le Raid du Goliath".L'Aérophile(in French): 247. 15 August 1919.
  11. ^abJackson 1973, p.62.
  12. ^Andrews and Morgan 1988, p. 95.
  13. ^Jackson 1988, p. 202.
  14. ^Swopes, Bryan R."25 June 1919".This Day in Aviation.Retrieved26 June2014.
  15. ^Laboda, Amy (23 May 2019)."Centenary Celebrations for a Commercial Aviation Classic".AIN Online.
  16. ^"The Fokker F III Commercial Monoplane".Flight.XIII(21): 355–359. 26 May 1921. No. 648.Retrieved21 May2019.
  17. ^de Leeuw, Rene, ed. (1994).FOKKER COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT from the F.1 of 1918 up to the Fokker 100 of today.Stone, Serge (illustrator). Amsterdam: N. V. Konninklijke Nederlandse V. Fokker. pp. 22–29, 181–182.
  18. ^"Handley Page Three-Engined Commercial Aeroplane for Belgium".Flight,1 May 1924
  19. ^"The Handley Page W.8 B."Flight,19 January 1922,
  20. ^"The Spad" Berline "S.33bis".Flight.XIII(27): 460–462. 7 July 1921. No. 654.Retrieved26 April2012.
  21. ^Chavis, Jason C. (19 May 2011). Patsalides, Laurie (ed.)."From Civilian to Military: All About 1920 Airplanes".Brighthub.com.Retrieved18 March2013.
  22. ^abJackson 1973,[page needed].
  23. ^Jackson 1987, pp. 508–525.
  24. ^"British Air Travellers Increasing".Flight.No. 18 August 1923. p. 474.
  25. ^abHerrick, Greg A."The Amazing Story of America's Oldest Flying Airliner"(PDF).Archived from the original on 2017-06-28.Retrieved4 April2019.{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)fordtri-motor.com,Yellowstone Aviation, Inc (Jackson, Wyoming), 2004. Retrieved: 4 April 2019.
  26. ^"Plane Carries Mail In Wing To Increase Load" (photo of under wing cargo carriers).Popular Mechanics,February 1931.
  27. ^Johnson, E.R. (2009).American flying boats and amphibious aircraft: an illustrated history.Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co. pp. 72–74.ISBN978-0786439744.
  28. ^Daley, Robert, An American Saga, 1980, Random House, New York,ISBN039450223X,pp. 103-110.
  29. ^"World Airliners 1913 to 1939".Scribd.com. 31 March 2010.Retrieved18 March2013.
  30. ^Jackson 1973, p. 122.
  31. ^Riding 1980,p. 289.
  32. ^Lewis 1971, p. 265.
  33. ^Moss 1966, p. 3.
  34. ^abMoss 1966, p. 4.
  35. ^Moss 1966, p. 5.
  36. ^Moss 1966, p. 6.
  37. ^Moss 1966, pp. 6-7.
  38. ^"Model 247 Commercial Transport."Archived18 January 2008 at theWayback Machineboeing.com,2009. Retrieved: 14 June 2010.
  39. ^"Douglas tells secrets of speed."Popular Mechanics,February 1935.
  40. ^Mellberg, William F (2003). "TRANSPORTATION REVOLUTION".Mechanical Engineering.125:22–25.
  41. ^Kathleen Burke (April 2013)."How the DC-3 Revolutionized Air Travel".Smithsonian.
  42. ^Bogash, Robert A."In Search of an Icon: The Hunt for a Boeing B-314 Flying Boat, Pan American NC18601 – the Honolulu Clipper"rbogash.com.Retrieved: 31 July 2011.
  43. ^abNorris 1966, p. 3.
  44. ^Bull, John (August 2014)."The Long Way Round: The Plane that Accidentally Circumnavigated the World".Lapsed Historian.Medium.com.Retrieved6 September2020.
  45. ^Masefield and Gunston, 2002, p. 82.
  46. ^Phipp 2007, p. 17.
  47. ^Masefield and Gunston, 2002, p. 97.
  48. ^https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1942/1942%20-%202664.html[dead link‍]
  49. ^Barnes 1964, pp. 324-325.
  50. ^Phipp 2007, pp. 67-69.
  51. ^Phipp 2007, pp. 75-77.
  52. ^Phipp 2007, p. 81.
  53. ^Andrews and Morgan 1988, p. 537.
  54. ^Barnes 1964, pp. 347-348.
  55. ^Phipp 2007, pp. 105-109.
  56. ^"On This Day: Comet inaugurates the jet age."BBC News,2 May 1952. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
  57. ^Cookman, Aubrey O. Jr."I Rode The First Jet Airliner."Popular Mechanics,July 1952, pp. 90–94. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
  58. ^Withey, P.A (1997), "Fatigue Failure of the de Havilland Comet I",Engineering Failure Analysis,4(2): 147,doi:10.1016/S1350-6307(97)00005-8
  59. ^"B.O.A.C. Comet Lost: Services Suspended."Flight,January 1954, p. 58. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
  60. ^Faith 1996, p. 72.
  61. ^Phipp 2007, pp. 93-97.
  62. ^Jackson 1987, pp. 464-465.
  63. ^abcdeJarrett, Philip. eds. Modern Air Transport: Worldwide Air Transport from 1945 to the Present. London: Putnam, 2000.
  64. ^Hamilton-Paterson, James (2010).Empire of the Clouds: When Britain's Aircraft Ruled the World(1St edition reprint ed.). Faber & Faber. p. 304.ISBN978-0571247943.
  65. ^"Latécoère 631".Aeroplane.No. January 2014. Cudham: Kelsey Publishing. pp. 102–03.ISSN0143-7240.
  66. ^abWheeler, Barry. "LANGUEDOC - France's first post-war airliner".Aeroplane.No. April 2014. Cudham: kelsey Media. pp. 22–28.ISSN0143-7240.
  67. ^Chillon, 1980, pp. 31-33.
  68. ^abHirst, Mike (2009). "Double-Decker Déja-vu".Aeroplane.No. December 2009. pp. 72–76.
  69. ^abcLópez Ortega, Antonio (1999).Reactores comerciales: Dibujos del autor(in Spanish). Madrid: Agualarga.ISBN978-84-95088-87-1.OCLC47809267.
  70. ^Dougal 1963, p. 456-457.
  71. ^Gordon and Rigmant 2005,[page needed]
  72. ^Melik-Karamov [Мелик-Карамов], Vitaly [Виталий] (January 2000)."Life and Death of the Tu-144, [Жизнь и смерть самолёта Ту-144]".No. 3. Flame [Огонёк]. Archived fromthe originalon 15 November 2000.
  73. ^New Design Concepts for High Speed Air Transportedited by H. Sobieczky (1997).
  74. ^Kroo, Ilan (January 19, 2006)."Engine Placement"(PDF).AA241 Introduction to Aircraft Design: Synthesis and Analysis.Stanford University. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on September 21, 2018.RetrievedFebruary 12,2012.
  75. ^"Blended Wing Body Feature".NASA. 17 April 2013. Archived fromthe originalon 8 July 2017.Retrieved18 January2016.
  76. ^Kevin Michaels (Jul 17, 2019)."Customer Support: The Jetliner Industry's Biggest Challenge".Aviation Week & Space Technology.
  77. ^Kaminski-Morrow, David (2019-11-15)."A320's order total overtakes 737's as Max crisis persists".Flight Global.DVV Media International Ltd. Archived fromthe originalon 2021-10-26.Retrieved2023-03-14.
  78. ^Craig Hoyle (6 Nov 2018)."World airliner directory - Mainliners".Flight Global.
  79. ^Addison Schonland (March 27, 2018)."Some big picture thoughts".AirInsight.
  80. ^abcAntoine Fafard (18 Sep 2018)."Commercial fleet summary September 2018".FlightGlobal.
  81. ^ab"787 stars in annual airliner census".FlightGlobal.14 August 2017.
  82. ^ab"FlightGlobal airliner census reveals fleet developments".FlightGlobal.8 August 2016.
  83. ^Aircraft Value News (May 13, 2019)."Parked Aircraft Continue to Below 7% of the Fleet – 28/5/2018".
  84. ^Richard Aboulafia (Sep 22, 2017)."Opinion: Have Jetliners Escaped The Boom-Bust Cycle?".Aviation Week & Space Technology.
  85. ^Richard Aboulafia (Dec 22, 2017)."Opinion: The Great Jetliner Ramp-up In Perspective".Aviation Week & Space Technology.
  86. ^ab"Fleet Watch 2017: commercial aircraft orders and deliveries for 2016".FlightGlobal.7 March 2017.
  87. ^"Aircraft manufacturers embrace the consumer society's values of built-in obsolescence".CAPA center for aviation.20 Jun 2017.
  88. ^IBA Consultants (Aug 1, 2018)."So how successful was Farnborough International Airshow 2018?".Aircraft Interiors.
  89. ^Chris Seymour (23 December 2020)."Looking past the pandemic to gauge future fleets".Flightglobal.
  90. ^Sean Broderick (Jun 13, 2018)."Aircraft Returning From Storage Reaches Four-Year High".Aviation Week Network.
  91. ^Abad-Santos, Alex (17 April 2017).""Calculated Misery": How Airlines Profit from Your Miserable Flying Experience ".vox.com.Retrieved6 April2024.
  92. ^Dong, Chris (24 November 2023)."Why Airlines are Investing Big in Premium Seats".afar.com.Retrieved6 April2024.
  93. ^"Civil Aviation Safety Authority – Seating information".Australian Government Civil Aviation Safety Authority. Archived fromthe originalon 3 March 2009.Retrieved18 March2013.
  94. ^"There's a Secret Handrail on Planes You're Not Using".Condé Nast Traveler.2017-10-09.Retrieved2024-03-06.

Bibliography

edit
  • Andrews, C.F. and Eric B. Morgan.Vickers Aircraft since 1908, Second edition.London: Putnam, 1988.ISBN0-85177-815-1.
  • Barnes, C.H.Bristol Aircraft since 1910.London: Putnam, First Edition, 1964 (1987 reprint).ISBN0-85177-823-2.
  • Chillon J., J-P Dubois and J.Wegg.French Postwar Transport Aircraft.Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians) Limited. 1980.ISBN978-0-85130-078-8.
  • Faith, Nicholas.Black Box: Why Air Safety is no Accident, The Book Every Air Traveller Should Read.London: Boxtree, 1996.ISBN0-7522-2118-3.
  • Dougal, M. G. (12 September 1963),"The Caravelle: Past Present and Future"(pdf),Flight International:456–458
  • Gordon, Yefim; Rigmant., Vladimir (2005).Tupolev Tu-144.Hinckley, Leicestershire, UK: Midland.ISBN978-1-85780-216-0..
  • Jackson, A.J.British Civil Aircraft since 1919: Volume II.London:Putnam, Second edition 1973.ISBN0-370-10010-7.
  • Jackson, A.J.British Civil Aircraft 1919–1972: Volume III.London: Putnam, revised second edition, 1988.ISBN0-85177-818-6.
  • Lewis, Peter (1971).British Racing and Record-Breaking Aircraft.London: Putnam.ISBN0-370-00067-6.
  • Masefield, Sir Peter; Gunston, Bill (2002).Flight Path.Shrewsbury, England: Airlife.ISBN978-1-84037-283-0.
  • Moss, Peter W. (1966).The de Havilland Rapide: Profile Publications Number 144.Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications.
  • Norris, Geoffrey.The Short Empire Boats(Aircraft in Profile Number 84). Leatherhead, Surrey, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1966.
  • Phipp, Mike (2007).The Brabazon Committee and British Airliners 1945-1960.Stroud, England: Tempus.ISBN978-0-7524-4374-4.
  • Riding, Richard (June 1980). "The Black Dragons".Aeroplane Monthly.Vol. 8, no. 6. pp. 284–290.ISSN0143-7240.

Further reading

edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Airliner&oldid=1246263116"