Wikipedia

Anopheles

Anopheles(/əˈnɒfɪliːz/) is agenusofmosquitofirst described by the GermanentomologistJ. W. Meigenin 1818, and are known asnail mosquitoesandmarsh mosquitoes.[1]Many such mosquitoes arevectorsof the parasitePlasmodium,a genus of protozoans that causemalariainbirds,reptiles,andmammals,including humans. TheAnopheles gambiaemosquito is the best-known species of marsh mosquito that transmits thePlasmodium falciparum,which is a malarialparasitedeadly to human beings; no other mosquito genus is a vector of human malaria.

Anopheles
Anopheles stephensi,female
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Culicidae
Subfamily: Anophelinae
Genus: Anopheles
Meigen1818
Species

For a full description, see the main article:Taxonomy of Anopheles

The genusAnophelesdiverged from other mosquitoes approximately100million years ago(mya), and, like other mosquitoes, the eggs,larvae,andpupaeareaquatic.TheAnopheleslarva has no respiratory siphon through which to breathe, so it breathes and feeds with its body horizontal to the surface of the water. The adult mosquito hatches from the surface and feeds on the nectar of flowers; the female mosquito also feeds on blood, which animal diet allows them to carry and transmit parasites between hosts. The adult's feeding position is head-down, unlike the horizontal stance of the culicines.Anophelesare distributed almost worldwide, throughout the tropics, the subtropics, and the temperate regions of planet Earth. In hot weather, adultAnophelesaestivate,which is a state of dormancy that enables the mosquito to survive in hot dry regions, such as theSahel.

Evolution

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Fossil history

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Fossilsof the genusAnophelesare rare; only two had been found by 2015.[2]They areAnopheles (Nyssorhynchus) dominicanusZavortink & Poinarin Dominican Republicamberfrom the LateEocene(40.4million years agoto33.9million years ago),[3]andAnopheles rottensisStatzinGermanamber from the LateOligocene(28.4million years agoto23million years ago).[2]

Phylogeny

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The ancestors of allfliesincluding mosquitoes appeared260million years ago.[4]TheculicineandAnophelesclades of mosquitoes diverged between120million years agoand150million years ago.[4][5]The Old and New WorldAnophelesspecies subsequently diverged between80million years agoand95million years ago.[4][5]Anopheles darlingidiverged from the African and Asian malaria vectors ~100million years ago.[6]The cladogram is based on an analysis of mosquitogenomesby Heafsey and colleagues in 2015:[6]

Diptera
Culicidae
Anopheles
subgenusCellia
subgenusPyretophorus

gambiaecomplex (Africa)

A. epirotus& spp.

30mya

A. stephensi& spp.

A. dirus& spp.

subgenusAnopheles

subgenusNyssorhynchus(Americas)

100mya

Culicinae

mosquitoes

Muscomorpha

all other flies
260mya

Taxonomy

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Main article:Taxonomy of Anopheles

The genus nameAnopheleswas introduced by the German entomologistJohann Wilhelm Meigenin 1818. He described two species,A. birfurcatusand thetype species,Anopheles maculipennis.He stated that the name meantbeschwerlich,"burdensome".[7]The name comes from theAncient Greekwordἀνωφελήςanōphelḗs'useless', derived fromἀν-an-,'not', 'un-' andὄφελοςóphelos'profit'.[8]

The taxonomy of the genus was greatly advanced in 1901 when the English entomologistFrederick Vincent Theobalddescribed 39Anophelesspecies in his 5-volume monograph on the Culicidae.[9]He was provided with mosquito specimens sent in to theBritish Museum (Natural History)from around the world, on the 1898 instruction of theSecretary of State for the Colonies,Joseph Chamberlain.[10]

Anopheles(with a nearly worldwide distribution) belongs to the subfamilyAnophelinaealongside two other genera:Bironella(restricted toAustralia) andChagasia(restricted to theNeotropics). The taxonomy remains incompletely settled.[11][12]Classification into species is based on morphological characteristics – wing spots, head anatomy, larval and pupal anatomy, chromosome structure, and more recently, on DNA sequences.[13][14][15]In the taxonomy published by Harbach and Kitching in 2016, it was shown that three species ofBironella(B. confusa,B. gracilis,andB. hollandi) are phylogenetically more similar toA. kyondawensisthan otherBironellaspecies. That phylogeny argues that, based on genetic similarity,A. implexusis divergent from the common ancestor ofAnopheles.[10]

Life cycle

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Like all mosquitoes, anophelines go through four stages in their life cycles:egg,larva,pupa,andadult.The first three stages are aquatic and together last 5–14 days, depending on the species and the ambient temperature. The adult stage is when the femaleAnophelesacts asmalariavector.The adult females can live up to a month (or more in captivity), but most probably do not live more than two weeks in nature.[16]

Eggs

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Anopheleseggs with their distinctive side floats

Adult females lay 50–200 eggs peroviposition.The eggs are quite small (about 0.5 millimetres (0.02 in) × 0.2 millimetres (0.008 in)). Eggs are laid singly and directly on water. They are unique in that they have floats on either side. Eggs are not resistant to drying and hatch within 2–3 days, although hatching may take up to 2–3 weeks in colder climates.[16]

Larvae

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The mosquito larva has a well-developed head with mouth brushes used for feeding, a largethoraxand a nine-segmentabdomen.It has no legs. In contrast to other mosquitoes, theAnopheleslarva lacks a respiratory siphon, so it positions itself so that its body is parallel to the surface of the water. In contrast, the feeding larva of culicine mosquitoes attach themselves to the water surface with the posterior siphon, the body pointing downwards. Larvae breathe throughspiracleslocated on the eighth abdominal segment and so must come to the surface frequently. The larvae spend most of their time feeding onalgae,bacteria,and other microorganisms in the thin surface layer. They dive below the surface only when disturbed. Larvae swim either by jerky movements of the entire body or throughpropulsionwith the mouth brushes.[16]

Larvae develop through four stages, orinstars,after which theymetamorphoseintopupae.At the end of each instar, the larvae molt, shedding their exoskeletons, or skin, to allow for further growth. The larvae occur in a wide range of habitats, but most species prefer clean, unpolluted water. Larvae ofAnopheleshave been found in freshwater or saltwater marshes, mangrove swamps, rice fields, grassy ditches, the edges of streams and rivers, and small, temporary rain pools. Many species prefer habitats with vegetation. Others prefer habitats with none. Some breed in open, sun-lit pools, while others are found only in shaded breeding sites in forests. A few species breed in tree holes or theleaf axilsof some plants.[16]

  • Anopheleslarva
  • Feeding position of anAnopheleslarva (A), culicine larva with its siphon (B)

Pupae

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The pupa (also known as a tumbler) is comma-shaped when viewed from the side. The head andthoraxare merged into acephalothorax,with the abdomen curving around underneath it. As with the larvae, the pupa must come to the surface frequently to breathe, which it does through a pair of respiratory trumpets on its cephalothorax. After a few days as a pupa, the dorsal surface of the cephalothorax splits and the adult mosquito emerges.[16]

Adults

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Resting positions of adultAnopheles(A, B) are more upright than that ofCulicinae(C).

Like all mosquitoes, adultAnophelesspecies have slender bodies with three sections: head, thorax and abdomen. The head is specialized for acquiring sensory information and for feeding. It contains the eyes and a pair of long, many-segmentedantennae.The antennae are important for detecting host odours, as well as of breeding sites where females lay eggs.[16]Female mosquitoes carryingPlasmodiumparasites, the causative agents of malaria, are significantly more attracted to human breath and odours than uninfected mosquitoes.[17] The head has an elongated, forward-projectingproboscisused for feeding, and twomaxillary palps.These palps carry the receptors forcarbon dioxide,a major attractant that enables the mosquito to locate its host. Thethoraxis specialized for locomotion. Three pairs of legs and a pair of wings are attached to the thorax. The abdomen is specialized for food digestion and egg development. This segmented body part expands considerably when a female takes a blood meal. The blood is digested over time, serving as a source ofproteinfor the production of eggs, which gradually fill theabdomen.[16]

Anophelescan be distinguished from other mosquitoes by thepalps,which are as long as the proboscis, and by the presence of discrete blocks of black and white scales on the wings. Adults can further be identified by their typical resting position: both sexes rest with their abdomens pointing up, unlike culicine mosquitoes. Adult mosquitoes usually mate within a few days after emerging from the pupal stage. In most species, the males form largeswarms,usually around dusk, and the females fly into the swarms to mate. The duration from egg to adult varies considerably among species, and is strongly influenced by ambient temperature. Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in as little as five days, but it can take 10–14 days in tropical conditions.[16]

Males live for about a week, feeding onnectarand other sources ofsugar.Males cannot feed on blood, as it appears to produce toxic effects and kills them within a few days, around the same lifespan as a water-only diet.[18]Females feed on sugar sources for energy, but usually require a blood meal for the development of eggs. After obtaining a full blood meal, the female rests for a few days while the blood is digested and eggs are developed. This process depends on the temperature, but usually takes 2–3 days in tropical conditions. Once the eggs are fully developed, the female lays them and resumes host-seeking. The cycle repeats itself until the female dies. While females can live longer than a month in captivity, most do not live longer than one to two weeks in nature. Their lifespans depend on temperature, humidity, and their ability to successfully obtain a blood meal while avoiding host defenses.[16]

  • Morphology of femaleAnopheles

Ecology

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Distribution

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Anophelesspecies live both in tropical areas known for malaria such as sub-Saharan Africa, and in colder latitudes. Malaria outbreaks have in the past occurred in colder climates, for example during the construction of theRideau Canalin Canada during the 1820s.[19]Anophelesspecies that can transmit malaria are not limited to malaria-endemic areas, so areas where they have been eliminated are constantly at risk of reintroduction of the disease.[20]

Global distribution ofAnophelesspecies covers both the tropics with numerous malarias, and colder areas not subject to malaria at the start of the 21st century.[20]

Habitat

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Anophelesrequire bodies of water, possibly small and seasonal, for their aquatic larvae and pupae. Suitable habitats range from ponds to water tanks, swamps, ditches and puddles.[21]The adults can however live in dry regions such as Africa'ssavannaandSahel.They can travel far from water, and are sometimes blown hundreds of kilometres by suitable winds. Adults canaestivatefor months at a time, becoming dormant in hot dry weather, allowing them to persist through the Africandry season.[22]Further,Anopheleshave been documented travelling in baggage, such as on aircraft.[23]

Parasites

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Parasites ofAnophelesincludeMicrosporidiaof the generaAmblyospora,Crepidulospora,SenomaandParathelohania.[24]Two distinct life cycles are found in the Microsporidia. In the first type, the parasite is transmitted by the oral route and is relatively species nonspecific. In the second, while again the oral route is the usual route of infection, the parasite is ingested within an already infected intermediate host. Infection of the insect larval form is frequently tissue-specific, and commonly involves thefat body.Vertical (transovarial) transmission also occurs.[25]

The parasiticWolbachiabacteria have been studied for use as control agents.[26]

Predators

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The jumping spiderEvarcha culicivoraindirectly feeds on vertebrate blood by preying on femaleAnopheles.[27]Juvenile spiders choose theAnophelesover all other prey regardless of whether it actually is carrying blood.[28]Juvenile spiders have adopted anAnopheles-specific prey-capture behavior, using the posture ofAnophelesas a primary cue to identify them.[27]Anopheleshas a distinctive resting posture with its abdomen angled up. In this case, the spider approaches from behind the mosquito and under its abdomen, and then attacks from below.[29]

Malaria vectors

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Preferred sources for blood meals

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Since the genusAnophelesis the sole vector for malaria, it has been studied intensively in the search for effective control methods. One important behavioral factor is the degree to which anAnophelesspecies prefers to feed on humans (anthropophily) or animals such as cattle or birds (zoophily). AnthropophilicAnophelesare more likely to transmit the malaria parasites from one person to another. MostAnophelesare not exclusively anthropophilic or zoophilic, including the primary malaria vector in the western United States,A. freeborni.[30][31]However, the primary malaria vectors inAfrica,A. gambiaeandA. funestus,are strongly anthropophilic and are consequently major vectors of human malaria.[16]

Probability of transmitting malaria

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Once ingested by a mosquito, malaria parasites must undergo development within the mosquito before they are infectious to humans. The time required for the parasite to develop in the mosquito (the extrinsicincubation period) ranges from 10 to 21 days, depending on the parasite species and the temperature. If a mosquito does not survive long enough for the parasite to develop, then she transmits no parasites.[16]

It is not possible to measure directly the lifespans of mosquitoes in nature, but indirect estimates of daily survivorship have been made for severalAnophelesspecies. Estimates of daily survivorship inTanzaniaofA. gambiae,the vector of the dangerousPlasmodium falciparumparasite, ranged from 0.77 to 0.84, meaning that after one day, between 77% and 84% have survived.[32]Assuming this survivorship is constant through the adult life of a mosquito, less than 10% of femaleA. gambiaewould survive longer than a 14-day extrinsic incubation period. If daily survivorship increased to 0.9, over 20% of mosquitoes would survive longer than the same period. Control measures that rely oninsecticides(e.g.indoor residual spraying) may actually impact malariatransmissionmore through their effect on adult longevity than through their effect on the population of adult mosquitoes.[16]

Patterns of feeding and resting

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MostAnophelesarecrepuscular(active at dusk or dawn) ornocturnal(active at night). Some feed indoors (endophagic), while others feed outdoors (exophagic). After feeding, some blood mosquitoes prefer to rest indoors (endophilic), while others prefer to rest outdoors (exophilic). Biting by nocturnal, endophagicAnophelescan be markedly reduced through the use ofinsecticide-treated bed nets or through improved housing construction to prevent mosquito entry (e.g.window screens). Endophilic mosquitoes are readily controlled by indoor spraying of residual insecticides. In contrast, exophagic/exophilic vectors are best controlled by destroying breeding sites, such as by filling in ponds.[16]

Gut flora

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Because transmission of disease by the mosquito requires ingestion of blood, the gut flora may have a bearing on the success of infection of the mosquito host. The larval and pupal gut is largely colonized by photosyntheticcyanobacteria,while in the adult,gram-negative bacteriain thePseudomonadotaandBacteroidotaphyla predominate. Blood meals drastically reduce the diversity of microorganisms in the gut, favouring bacteria.[33]

Control

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Person wearing personal protective equipment performing indoor residual spraying on a house to prevent malaria.

Insecticide control and resistance

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Insecticideshave offered a first line of approach to ridding areas of malarial mosquitoes. However, mosquitoes, with a short generation time, may rapidly evolve resistance, as experienced during the Global Malaria Eradication Campaign of the 1950s.[34]The use of insecticides in agriculture has resulted in resistance in mosquito populations, implying that an effective control program must monitor for resistance and switch to other means if resistance is detected.[35]

Eradication

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In 2016, a CRISPR-Cas9gene drivesystem was proposed to eradicateAnopheles gambiae,[36]by deleting thedsxgene, causing female sterility. Such a gene drive system has been shown to suppress an entire cagedA. gambiaepopulation[37]within 7–11 generations, typically less than a year. This has raised concerns with both the efficiency of a gene drive system as well as the ethical and ecological impact of such an eradication program.[38]Therefore, there have been efforts to use the gene drive system to more efficiently introduce genes ofPlasmodiumresistance into the species, such as targeting and knocking out theFREP1gene inAnopheles gambiae.[39]Researchers inBurkina Fasohave created a strain of the fungusMetarhizium pinghaensethat is genetically engineered to produce the venom of an Australianfunnel-web spider;exposure to the fungus caused populations ofAnophelesto crash by 99% in a controlled trial.[40]

See also

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References

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