Wikipedia

Baybars

For other uses, seeBaybars (disambiguation).

Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari(Arabic:الملك الظاهر ركن الدين بيبرس البندقداري;[a]1223/1228 – 1 July 1277), commonly known asBaibarsorBaybarsand nicknamedAbu al-Futuh(أبو الفتوح,lit. 'Father of Conquests'), was the fourthMamluksultan of Egypt and Syria,ofTurkicKipchakorigin, in theBahri dynasty,succeedingQutuz.He was one of the commanders of the Egyptian forces that inflicted a defeat on theSeventh Crusadeof KingLouis IX of France.He also led the vanguard of the Egyptian army at theBattle of Ain Jalutin 1260,[4]which marked the first substantial defeat of theMongolarmy and is considered a turning point in history.[5]

Baybars
Sultan Misr wa al-Sham
Al-Malik al-Zahir
Rukn al-Din
A probable near-contemporary depiction of Sultan Baybars:[1]enthroned ruler and attendants in theBaptistère de Saint Louis(1320–1340).[1]
Sultan of Egypt
Reign24 October 1260 – 1 July 1277
Coronation1260 atSalihiyah
PredecessorSaif ad-Din Qutuz
SuccessorAl-Said Barakah
Born19 July 1223 or 1228
Dasht-i KipchakCrimea[2][3]
Died1 July 1277 (aged 50/55)
Damascus,Mamluk Sultanate
SpouseIltutmish Khatun (likely a daughter born from a Khwarazmian Emir and a Daughter ofBerke)
Issue
Names
al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari Abu al-Futuh
HouseZahiri
DynastyBahri
ReligionIslam

The reign of Baybars marked the start of an age of Mamluk dominance in theEastern Mediterraneanand solidified the durability of their military system. He managed to pave the way for the end of theCrusaderpresence in theLevantand reinforced the union of Egypt and Syria as the region's pre-eminent Muslim state, able to fend off threats from both Crusaders and Mongols, and even managed to subdue the kingdom ofMakuria,which was famous for being unconquerable by previous Muslim empire invasion attempts. As sultan, Baybars also engaged in a combination of diplomacy and military action, allowing the Mamluks of Egypt to greatly expand their empire.

Name and appearance

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In his nativeTurkic language,Baybars' name means "great panther"[6]or "lord panther"[7](see also Wiktionary:bay"rich person, noble" +pars"leopard, panther" ).

Bridge built by Baybars near modernLod,with an inscription from 1273 glorifying the sultan and depicting his emblem, the lion/panther[8]

Possibly based on the Turkic meaning of his name, Baybars used the panther as his heraldicblazon,and placed it on both coins and buildings.[6]The lion/panther used on thebridge built by Baybarsnear al-Ludd (today'sLod) plays with a rat, which may be interpreted to represent Baybars' Crusader enemies.[9]

Baybars was described as a tall man witholive skinandblue eyes.He had broad shoulders, slim legs, and a powerful voice.[10][11]It was observed that he hadcataractin one eye.[12]

Biography

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Baybars was aKipchakthought to be born in thestepperegion north of theBlack Sea,orDasht-i Kipchakat the time.[13][14][15][16][17]There is a discrepancy inIbn Taghrībirdī's dating of his birth, since he says it took place in 625 AH (12 December 1227 – 29 November 1228) and also that Baybars was about 24 years old in 1247, which would put his birth closer to 1223. He belonged to the Barli tribe. According to a fellow Cuman and eyewitness, Badr al-Din Baysari, the Barli fled the armies of theMongols,intending to settle in theSecond Bulgarian Empire(named in the sourcesWallachia). They crossed theBlack Seafrom eitherCrimeaorAlania,where they had arrived in Bulgaria in about 1242. In the meantime, theMongols invaded Bulgaria,including the regions where the Cuman refugees had recently settled.[18]Both Baybars, who witnessed his parents being massacred,[18]and Baysari were among the captives during the invasion and were sold into slavery in theSultanate of Rumat the slave market inSivas.Afterwards, he was sold inHamato'Alā' al-Dīn Īdīkīn al-Bunduqārī[de],an Egyptian of high rank, who brought him toCairo.In 1247, al-Bunduqārī was arrested and the sultan of Egypt,As-Salih Ayyub,confiscated his slaves, including Baybars.[19]

Al-Sha'rani(d. 973/1565) counted him amongIbn 'Arabi's students.[20]

Rise to power

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The Mamluks under Baybars (yellow) fought off the Franks and the Mongols during theNinth Crusade.

In 1250, he supported the defeat of theSeventh CrusadeofLouis IX of Francein two major battles. The first was theBattle of Al Mansurah,where he employed an ingenious strategy in ordering the opening of a gate to let the crusader knights enter the town; the crusaders rushed into the town that they thought was deserted to find themselves trapped inside. They were besieged from all directions by the Egyptian forces and the town population, and suffered heavy losses.Robert of Artois,who took refuge in a house,[21][22]andWilliam Longespée the Youngerwere both killed, along with most of theKnights Templar.Only five Templar Knights escaped alive.[23]The second was theBattle of Fariskurwhich essentially ended the Seventh Crusade and led to the capture of Louis IX. Egyptian forces in that battle were led by SultanTuranshah,the young son of recently deceasedas-Salih Ayyub.Shortly after the victory over the Crusaders, Baybars and a group of Mamluk soldiers assassinated Turanshah, leading to as-Salih Ayyub's widowShajar al-Durrbeing namedsultana.[24]

In 1254, a power shift occurred in Egypt, asAybakkilledFaris ad-Din Aktai,the leader of the Bahri Mamluks. Some of his Mamluks, among them Baybars andQalawun al-Alfi,fled toan-Nasir YusufinSyria,[25]persuading him to break the accord[clarification needed]and invade Egypt. Aybak wrote to an-Nassir Yusuf warning him of the danger of these Mamluks who took refuge in Syria, and agreed to grant him their territorial domains on the coast, but an-Nasir Yusuf refused to expel them and instead returned to them the domains which Aybak had granted. In 1255, an-Nasir Yusuf sent new forces to the Egyptian border, this time with many of Aktai's Mamluks, among them Baybars, and Qalawun al-Alfi, but he was defeated again. In 1257, Baybars and other Bahri Mamluks left Damascus toJerusalem,where they deposed its governor Kütük and plundered its markets, then they did the same inGaza.Later on, they fought against the forces of an-Nasir Yusuf atNablus,then fled to join the forces ofal-Mughith Umar[de]inKerak.[26]The combined forces tried in vain to invade Egypt during the reign of Aybak.[27]

Baybars then sent 'Ala al-Din Taybars al-Waziri to discuss withQutuzhis return to Egypt, which was eagerly accepted.[28]He was still a commander under sultan Qutuz at theBattle of Ain Jalutin 1260, when he decisively defeated the Mongols. After the battle, Sultan Qutuz (aka Koetoez) was assassinated while on a hunting expedition. It was said that Baybars was involved in the assassination because he expected to be rewarded with the governorship ofAleppofor his military success, but Qutuz, fearing his ambition, refused to give him the post.[29]Baybars succeeded Qutuz as Sultan of Egypt.[30]

Becoming Sultan

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Soon after Baybars had ascended to the Sultanate, his authority was confirmed without any serious resistance, except fromAlam al-Din Sinjar al-Halabi,another Mamlukamirwho was popular and powerful enough to claimDamascus.Also, the threat from the Mongols was still serious enough to be considered as a threat to Baybars' authority. However, Baybars first chose to deal with Sinjar,[31][32][33]and marched on Damascus. At the same time the princes ofHamaandHomsproved able to defeat the Mongols in theFirst Battle of Homs,which lifted the Mongol threat for a while. On 17 January 1261, Baybars's forces were able to rout the troops of Sinjar outside Damascus, and pursued the attack to the city, where the citizens were loyal to Sinjar and resisted Baybars, although their resistance was soon crushed.

There was also a brief rebellion in Cairo led by a leading figure of the Shiite namedal-Kurani.Al-Kurani is said originated from Nishapur.[31]Al-Kurani and his follower are recorded to have attacked the weapon stores and stables of Cairo during a night raid. Baybars, however, manage to suppress the rebellion quickly as he surrounded and arrested them all. Al- Kurani and another rebel leaders were executed (crucified) inBab Zuweila[31]

After suppressing the revolt of Sinjar, Baybars then managed to deal with theAyyubids,while quietly eliminating the prince of Kerak. Ayyubids such asAl-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Homsand the Ayyubid Emir Dynasty of HamaAl-Mansur Muhammad II,who had earlier staved off the Mongol threat, were permitted to continue their rule in exchange for their recognizing Baybars' authority as Sultan.[34]

After theAbbasid caliphatein Iraq was overthrown by the Mongols in 1258 when they conquered andsacked Baghdad,the Muslim world lacked acaliph,a theoretically supreme leader who had sometimes used his office to endow distant Muslim rulers with legitimacy by sending them writs of investiture. Thus, when the Abbasid refugee Abu al-Qasim Ahmad, the uncle of the last Abbasid caliphal-Musta'sim,arrived in Cairo in 1261, Baybars had him proclaimed caliph asal-Mustansir IIand duly received investiture as sultan from him. Unfortunately, al-Mustansir II was killed by the Mongols during an ill-advised expedition to recapture Baghdad from the Mongols later in the same year. In 1262, another Abbasid, allegedly the great-great-great-grandson of the Caliphal-Mustarshid,Abu al-'Abbas Ahmad, who had survived from the defeated expedition, was proclaimed caliph asal-Hakim I,inaugurating the line of Abbasid caliphs of Cairo that continued as long as theMamluk sultanate,until 1517. Like his unfortunate predecessor, al-Hakim I also received the formal oath of allegiance of Baybars and provided him with legitimation. While most of the Muslim world did not take these caliphs seriously, as they were mere instruments of the sultans, they still lent a certain legitimation as well as a decorative element to their rule.[34]

Campaign against the Crusaders

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Further information:Siege of Antioch (1268)
Gold coin minted under Baybars, with an Arabic inscription and an image of a panther or lion below it

As sultan, Baybars engaged in a lifelong struggle against the Crusader kingdoms inSyria,in part because the Christians had aided the Mongols. He started with thePrincipality of Antioch,which had become a vassal state of the Mongols and had participated in attacks against Islamic targets in Damascus and Syria. In 1263, Baybars laid siege toAcre,the capital of the remnant of theKingdom of Jerusalem,although the siege was abandoned when he sackedNazarethinstead.[35]He used siege engines to defeat the Crusaders in battles such as theFall of Arsuffrom 21 March to 30 April. After breaking into the town he offered free passage to the defending Knights Hospitallers if they surrendered their formidable citadel. The Knights accepted Baybars' offer but were enslaved anyway.[36]Baybars razed the castle to the ground.[37]He next attackedAtlitandHaifa,where he captured both towns after destroying the crusaders' resistance, and razed the citadels.[38]

In the same year, Baybars laid siege to the fortress ofSafed,held by theTemplarknights, which hadbeen conqueredbySaladinin 1188 but returned to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1240. Baybars promised the knights safe passage to the Christian town of Acre if they surrendered their fortress. Badly outnumbered, the knights agreed. Upon surrender, Baybars broke his promise and massacred the entire Templar garrison[citation needed].On capturing Safed, Baybars did not raze the fortress to the ground but fortified and repaired it instead, as it was strategically situated and well constructed. He installed a new governor in Safed, with the rank ofWali.[39]

Later, in 1266, Baybars invaded the Christian country ofCilician Armeniawhich, under KingHethum I,had submitted to the Mongol Empire. After defeating the forces of Hethum I in theBattle of Mari,Baybars managed to ravage the three great cities ofMamistra,AdanaandTarsus,so that when Hetoum arrived with Mongol troops, the country was already devastated. Hetoum had to negotiate the return of his sonLeoby giving control of Armenia's border fortresses to the Mamluks. In 1269, Hetoum abdicated in favour of his son and became a monk, but he died a year later.[40]Leo was left in the awkward situation of keeping Cilicia as a subject of the Mongol Empire, while at the same time paying tribute to the Mamluks.[41]

This isolated Antioch and Tripoli, led by Hethum's son-in-law, PrinceBohemond VI.After successfully conquering Cilicila, Baybars in 1267 settled his unfinished business with Acre, and continued the extermination of remaining crusader garrisons in the following years. In 1268, hebesieged Antioch,capturing the city on 18 May. Baybars had promised to spare the lives of the inhabitants, but he broke his promise and had the city razed, killing or enslaving much of the population after the surrender.[42]prompting the fall of thePrincipality of Antioch.The massacre of men, women, and children at Antioch "was the single greatest massacre of the entire crusading era."[43]Priests had their throats slit inside their churches, and women were sold into slavery.[44]

Then he continued toJaffa,which belonged to Guy, the son of John of Ibelin. Jaffa fell to Baybars on 7 March after twelve hours of fighting; most of Jaffa's citizens were slain, but Baybars allowed the garrison to go unharmed.[45]After this he conqueredAshkalonandCaesarea.

Alliance with Golden Horde

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Baybars actively pursued a close relationship withBerke,the Khan of Golden Horde.[46]He particularly was recorded to receive the first two hundred soldiers from Golden Horde to visit warmly, where Baybars persuade them to convert to Islam while also observing the growing enmity between the Golden Horde Khan with Hulagu.[46]Baybars, who at that time has just defeated Hulagu, immediately sent envoy to Berke to inform the latter about this. Then, As soon as Berke converted to Islam, he sent envoy to Egypt to give news about this matter, and later, Baybars brought more peoples from Golden Horde to be sent into Egypt, where they also converted to Islam.[46]

In some time around October to November 1267, or about 666 Safar ofHijra year,Baybars wrote condolences and congratulations to the new Khan of theGolden Horde,Mengu-Timur,to urge him to fightAbaqa.Baybars continued to conduct warm correspondence with the Golden Horde, particularly with Mengu Timur's generalNoqai,who unlike Mengu Timur was very cooperative with Baybars. It is theorized that this intimacy was not only due to the religious connection (as Noqai was a Muslim, unlike his Khan), but also because Noqai was not really fond of Mengu-Timur. However, Baybars was pragmatic in his approach and did not want to become involved in complicated intrigue inside the Golden Horde, so instead he stayed close to both Mengu Timur and Noqai.[47]

Continued campaign against Crusaders

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Further information:Fall of Krak des Chevaliers

On 30 March 1271, after Baybars captured the smaller castles in the area, includingChastel Blanc,he besieged the Krak des Chevaliers, held by theHospitallers.Peasants who lived in the area had fled to the castle for safety and were kept in the outer ward. As soon as Baybars arrived, he began erectingmangonels,powerful siege weapons which he would turn on the castle. According toIbn Shaddad,two days later the first line of defences was captured by the besiegers; he was probably referring to a walled suburb outside the castle's entrance.[48]After a lull of ten days, the besiegers conveyed a letter to the garrison, supposedly from the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Tripoli,Hugues de Revel,which granted permission for them to surrender. The garrison capitulated and the Sultan spared their lives.[48]The new owners of the castle undertook repairs, focused mainly on the outer ward.[49]The Hospitaller chapel was converted to amosqueand twomihrabswere added to the interior.[50]

Baybars then turned his attention to Tripoli, but he interrupted his siege there to call a truce in May 1271. The fall of Antioch had led to the briefNinth Crusade,led byPrince Edward of England,who arrived in Acre in May 1271 and attempted to ally himself with the Mongols against Baybars. So Baybars declared a truce with Tripoli, as well as with Edward, who was never able to capture any territory from Baybars anyway. According to some reports, Baybars tried to have Edward assassinated with poison, but Edward survived the attempt and returned home in 1272.

Campaign against Makuria

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Further information:Makuria § Decline (12th century–1365)
Possible depiction of kingDavid of Makuriaon a wallpainting fromOld Dongola

In 1265 a Mamluk army allegedly raided Makuria as far south as Dongola[51]while also expanding southwards along the African Red Sea coast, thus threatening the Nubians.[52]In 1272 kingDavidmarched east and attacked the port town ofAidhab,[53]located on an importantpilgrimageroute toMecca.The Nubian army destroyed the town, causing “a blow to the very heart of Islam”.[54]This initiated several decades of intervention by the Mamluks inNubianaffairs.[55]A punitive Mamluk expedition was sent in response, but did not pass beyond the second cataract.[56]Three years later the Makurians attacked and destroyed Aswan,[53]but this time, Baybars responded with a well-equipped army setting off from Cairo in early 1276,[54]accompanied by a cousin of king David named Mashkouda[57]or Shekanda.[58]The Mamluks defeated the Nubians in three battles at Gebel Adda, Meinarti and finally at theBattle of Dongola.David fled upstream the Nile, eventually enteringal-Abwabin the south,[59]which, previously being Alodia's northernmost province, had by this period become a kingdom of its own.[60]The king of al-Abwab, however, handed David over to Baybars, who had him executed.[61]

Baybars then completed his conquest of Nubia, including theMedieval lower Nubiawhich was ruled byBanu Kanz.Under the terms of the settlement, the Nubians were now subjected to payingjizyatribute, and in return they were allowed to keep their religion, being protected under Islamic law as 'People of the Book'; they were also allowed to continue being governed by a king from the native royal family, although this king was chosen personally by Baybars, namely a Makurian noble named Shakanda.[62]In practice this was reducing Makuria to a vassal kingdom,[63]effectively ending Makuria's status as an independent kingdom.

Further campaign against Ilkhanate

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In 1277, Baybars invaded theSeljuq Sultanate of Rûm,then controlled by theIlkhanateMongols. He defeated a Ilkhanate army at theBattle of Elbistan[64]and captured the city ofKayseri.Baybars himself went with a few troops to deal with the Mongol right flank that was pounding his left wing.[65]Baybars ordered a force from the army from Hama to reinforce his left. The large Mamluk numbers were able to overwhelm the Mongol force, who instead of retreating dismounted from their horses. Some Mongols were able to escape and took up positions on the hills. Once they became surrounded they once again dismounted, and fought to the death.[65][66]During the celebration of victory, Baybars said that "How can I be happy? Before I had thought that I and my servants would defeat the Mongols, but my left wing was beaten by them. Only Allah helped us".[67]

The possibility of a new Mongol army convinced Baybars to return to Syria, since he was far away from his bases and supply line. As the Mamluk army returned to Syria the commander of the Mamluk vanguard, Izz al-Din Aybeg al-Shaykhi, deserted to the Mongols.Pervânesent a letter to Baybars asking him to delay his departure. Baybars chastised him for not aiding him during the Battle of Elbistan. Baybars told him he was leaving for Sivas to mislead Pervâne and the Mongols as to his true destination. Baybars also sent Taybars al-Waziri with a force to raid the Armenian town of al-Rummana, whose inhabitants had hidden the Mongols earlier.[68]

Death

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Mausoleum chamber of sultanBaybars(1260-1277) inAl-Zahiriyah LibraryinDamascus

Baybars died inDamascuson 1 July 1277, when he was 53 years old. His demise has been the subject of some academic speculation. Many sources agree that he died from drinking poisonedkumisthat was intended for someone else. Other accounts suggest that he may have died from a wound while campaigning, or from illness.[69]He was buried in theAz-Zahiriyah Libraryin Damascus.[70]

Family

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Sultan Baybars married a noble lady from Tripoli (modern-day Lebanon) named Aisha al Bushnatiya, a prominent Arab family. Aisha was a warrior who fought the Crusaders along with her brother lieutenant Hassan. She met Sultan Baybars after he camped in Tripoli during his siege.[citation needed]They had a short relationship and after that they got married. There are conflicting stories of whether Aisha returned with Baybars to Egypt or was martyred in Tripoli.[citation needed]

One of Baibar's wives was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Nogay at-Tatari.[71]Another wife was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Giray at-Tatari.[71]Another wife was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Tammaji.[71]Another wife was Iltutmish Khatun.[72]She was the daughter of Barka Khan a former Khwarazmian amir. She was the mother of his sonAl-Said Barakah.[73]She died in 1284–85.[72]Another wife was the daughter Karmun Agha, a Mongol Amir.[74]He had three sonsal-Said Barakah,Solamishand Khizir.[71]He had seven daughters;[71]one of them was named Tidhkarbay Khatun.[75]

Legacy

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Further information:Seventh Crusade,Ninth Crusade,andBattle of Ain Jalut
Bronze bust of Sultan Baibars in Cairo, at theEgyptian National Military Museum

As the first Sultan of theBahriMamlukdynasty,Baybars made the meritocratic ascent up the ranks of Mamluk society, where he commanded Mamluk forces in the decisiveBattle of Ain Jalutin 1260, repelling Mongol forces from Syria.[76]Although in the Muslim world he has been considered a national hero for centuries, and in theNear EastandKazakhstanis still regarded as such, Baybars was reviled in the Christian world of the time for his successful campaigns against theCrusader States.ATemplar knightwho fought in theSeventh Crusadelamented:

Rage and sorrow are seated in my heart...so firmly that I scarce dare to stay alive. It seems that God wishes to support the Turks to our loss...ah, lord God...alas, the realm of the East has lost so much that it will never be able to rise up again. They will make aMosqueof Holy Mary's convent, and since the theft pleases her Son, who should weep at this, we are forced to comply as well...Anyone who wishes to fight the Turks is mad, forJesus Christdoes not fight them any more. They have conquered, they will conquer. For every day they drive us down, knowing that God, who was awake, sleeps now, andMuhammadwaxes powerful.[77]

Baybars also played an important role in bringing the Mongols toIslam.[46]He developed strong ties with the Mongols of theGolden Hordeand took steps for the Golden Horde Mongols to travel toEgypt.The arrival of the Mongol's Golden Horde to Egypt resulted in a significant number of Mongols accepting Islam.[78]

Military legacy

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Baybars was a popular ruler in the Muslim world who had defeated the crusaders in three campaigns, and theMongolsin theBattle of Ain Jalutwhich many scholars deem of greatmacro-historicalimportance. In order to support his military campaigns, Baybars commissioned arsenals, warships and cargo vessels. He was also arguably the first to employ explosivehand cannonsin war, at the Battle of Ain Jalut.[79][80]His military campaign also extended intoLibyaandNubia.

Culture and science

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Further information:Islam and cats

He was also an efficient administrator who took interest in building various infrastructure projects, such as a mounted message relay system capable of delivery fromCairotoDamascusin four days. He built bridges, irrigation and shipping canals, improved the harbours, and built mosques. He was a patron ofIslamic science,such as his support for the medical research of hisArab physician,Ibn al-Nafis.[81]As a testament of a special relationship betweenIslam and cats,Baybars left a cat garden in Cairo as awaqf,providing the cats of Cairo with food and shelter.[82]

His memoirs were recorded inSirat al-Zahir Baibars( "Life of al-Zahir Baibars" ), a popularArabic romancerecording his battles and achievements. He has a heroic status inKazakhstan,as well as inEgypt,Palestine,LebanonandSyria.

Al-Madrassa al-Zahiriyyais the school built adjacent to his Mausoleum inDamascus.[citation needed]TheAz-Zahiriyah Libraryhas a wealth of manuscripts in various branches of knowledge to this day.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^al-Malik al-Ẓāhir Rukn al-Dīn Baybars al-Bunduqdārī

References

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  1. ^abFuess, Albrecht (2018)."Sultans with Horns: The Political Significance of Headgear in the Mamluk Empire (MSR XII.2, 2008)"(PDF).Mamlūk Studies Review.12(2): 76, 84, Fig. 5.doi:10.6082/M100007Z.
  2. ^Adventuring in the Englishes: Language and Literature in a Postcolonial Globalized World, Ikram Ahmed Elsherif, Piers Michael Smith. 2014. Part I; Chapter 2, p 18.
  3. ^"Baybars I".Britannica.15 February 2024.
  4. ^The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Macropædia, H.H. Berton Publisher, 1973–1974, p. 773/vol. 2
  5. ^The history of the Mongol conquests,By J. J. Saunders, p. 115
  6. ^abHeghnar Zeitlian Watenpaugh (2004).The image of an Ottoman city: imperial architecture and urban experience in Aleppo in the 16th and 17th centuries.Brill. p. 198.ISBN90-04-12454-3.
  7. ^Caroline Williams (2008).Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide; New Revised Edition.The American University in Cairo Press. p. 185.ISBN9789774162053.
  8. ^Petry, Carl F. (2022).The Mamluk Sultanate.Cambridge University Press. p. 13.ISBN978-1-108-47104-6.
  9. ^Niall Christie (2014).Muslims and Crusaders: Christianity's Wars in the Middle East, 1095–1382, from the Islamic Sources.Seminar Studies (first ed.). Routledge. p. 121, Plate 8.ISBN9781138022744.
  10. ^Bartlett, W. B. (2021).The Fall of Christendom: The Road to Acre 1291.Amberley Publishing Limited.ISBN978-1-4456-8418-5."He was described as being a tall man with a powerful voice, swarthy skin, and blue eyes.
  11. ^"Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three – Brill".referenceworks.brillonline.com."Baybars is described as a tall man with broad chest and shoulders, slim legs, a powerful voice, swarthy skin, and blue eyes."
  12. ^Thorau, Peter (1992).Sultan Baybars der Erste von Ägypten.Longman. p. 28.ISBN978-0-582-06823-0.
  13. ^Holt, P. M. (2014) [1986].The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517.Routledge. p. 90.ISBN978-1-317-87152-1.By origin he was a Kipchak Turk from the territory lying to the north of the Black Sea. When the Mongols conquered this region in about 1241, Baybars' people fled across the Black Sea and sought refuge with a Turcoman chieftain in Anatolia, who proved treacherous, and turned on the fugitives with fire and sword. Baybars was among the captives. He was then about fourteen years of age, and his journey southwards can be traced through the slave-markets of Sivas, Aleppo, Damascus and Hamah.
  14. ^Thorau, Peter (2010). "Baybars I, al-Malik al-Ẓāhir Rukn al-Dīn". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three.Brill.ISBN9789004161658.Baybars is described as a tall man with broad chest and shoulders, slim legs, a powerful voice, swarthy skin, and blue eyes. He was probably born about 625/1227–8 in the southern Russian steppes as a member of a Qipçāq-Turkish group. At the age of fourteen he became a slave. The amīr Aydakīn al-Bunduqdār bought him in Ḥamāt (Hama) a short while later.
  15. ^Fry, C. George (1998)."Baybars I".In Magill, Frank Northen; Aves, Alison (eds.).Dictionary of World Biography: The Middle Ages.Routledge. p. 124.ISBN978-1-57958-041-4.Baybars I, al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn ak-Din Baybars al-Salihi, was born around the year 1223 in what is now southern Russia. A member of the tribe of Kipchak Turks living on the north shores of the Black Sea, Barbars was a victim of the Mongol invasion of his native region in the late 1230's. By the time he was fourteen, Baybars had become a prisoner of war; he was sold in the slave market in Sivas, Anatolia.
  16. ^Amitai, Reuven (2006)."Baybars I, Mamluk Sultan".In Meri, Josef W. (ed.).Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia.Routledge. p. 101.ISBN978-0-415-96690-0.Baybars was born around 1220 CE among the Qipchaq Turks, who lived in the steppe region north of the Black Sea. Fleeing from the Mongol invasions in the area in 1241–1242, Baybars and his family moved to Anatolia. There, Baybars was captured and ended up in the slave market of Damascus.
  17. ^Rabie, Hassanein Muhammad."Baybars I | Mamlūk Sultan of Egypt & Syria".Britannica.Retrieved16 June2023.
  18. ^abRanulph Fiennes (2019).The Elite: The Story of Special Forces – From Ancient Sparta to the War on Terror.Simon and Schuster. p. 64.ISBN978-1-4711-5664-9.
  19. ^Dimitri Korobeinikov (2008), "A Broken Mirror: The Kıpçak World in the Thirteenth Century", in Florin Curta; Roman Kovalev (eds.),The Other Europe in the Middle Ages: Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, and Cumans,Leiden: Brill, pp. 379–412.
  20. ^Nader Jamil Jum'a (2020).محيي الدين بن عربي وآراؤه الفقهية في الفتوحات المكية[Muhyi al-Din ibn 'Arabi and his jurisprudential opinions in al-Futuhāt al-Makkiyya] (in Arabic) (1st ed.).Lebanon:Dar al-Kutub al-'Ilmiyya.p. 86.ISBN9782745192783– viaGoogle Books.الظاهر بيبرس: ركن الدين أبو الفتوح بيبرس التركي البندقداري ثم الصالحي صاحب مصر والشام ولد في حدود العشرين وستمائة كان رجلاً شجاعاً فارساً مقداماً مجاهداً عظيم الهيبة يضرب بشجاعته المثل، وله في الإسلام أيام بيض وفتوحات مشهورة. أجازه الشيخ محيي الدين ابن عربي برواية جميع مؤلفاته توفي 676 هـ، ذكره الشعراني ضمن تلاميذ ابن عربي.
  21. ^Lord of Joinville, 110, part II.
  22. ^Asly, p. 49.
    Skip Knox,Egyptian Counter-attack, The Seventh Crusade.
  23. ^According to Matthew Paris, only 2 Templars, 1 Hospitaller and one 'contemptible person' escaped. Matthew Paris,Louis IX's Crusade,p. 14/ Vol. 5.
  24. ^Runciman, Steven,A History of the Crusades, Volume Three: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades,Cambridge University Press, London, 1951, pp. 272–273
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  26. ^Humphreys 1977,p. 331.
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  29. ^The story of the involvement of Baybars in the assassination was told by different historians in different ways. In one account the assassins killed Qutuz while he was giving a hand to Baybars (Al-Maqrizi and Ibn-Taghri). In another, from an Ayyubid source, Qutuz was giving a hand to someone when Baybars struck his back with a sword (Abu-Al-Fida). A third account mentioned that Baybars tried to help Qutuz against the assassins (O. Hassan). According to Al-Maqrizi, the Emirs who struck Qutuz were Badr ad-Din Baktut, Emir Ons, and Emir Bahadir al-Mu'izzi. (Al-Maqrizi, p.519/vol.1)
  30. ^MacHenry, Robert.The New Encyclopædia Britannica.Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 1993.Baybars
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  33. ^.ʿAlī b. Maḥmūd b. Muḥammad b. ʿUmar b. Shāhanshāh b. Ayyūb b. Shādī b. Marwān, Ismāʿīl Abulfeda.Concise History of Humanity(المختصر في أخبار Tarikh al-Mukhtasar fi Akhbar al-Bashar)(PDF).Retrieved27 September2021.
  34. ^abRunciman, Steven (1987).A History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusadesquoting Magrisi Sultans, I, i, p. 116; Abu al Fida pp. 145–50; Bar Hebraeus p. 439.CUP Archive. p. 316.ISBN9780521347723.
  35. ^Dalrymple, William(1989).In Xanadu.Penguin Books India.ISBN9780143031079.Retrieved3 April2018– via Google Books.
  36. ^Rodney Stark, 'God's Battalions', 2009, p. 230
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  41. ^Bournotian,A Concise History of the Armenian People,p. 101
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  44. ^Madden,supraat 168.
  45. ^The Later Crusades, 1189–1311.Univ of Wisconsin Press. 1969. p. 557.ISBN9780299048440.
  46. ^abcdThomas Walker Arnold(1896). "8".The Preaching of Islam A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith.A. Constable and Company; Harvard University. p. 192.Retrieved26 November2023.A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith Sir Thomas Walker Arnold. men, observing the growing enmity between... Baybars, who persuaded them to embrace Islam.1 Baybars himself was at war with Hūlāgū, whom he had recently...
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  49. ^King 1949,p. 91
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  52. ^Gazda 2005,p. 93.
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  54. ^abGazda 2005,p. 95.
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  58. ^Welsby 2002,p. 244.
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  60. ^Welsby 2002,p. 254.
  61. ^Werner 2013,pp. 122–123.
  62. ^El Hareir, Mbaye, Idris, Ravane (2011).The Spread of Islam Throughout the World.UNESCO. p. 300.ISBN9789231041532.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  72. ^abKaram, Amina (22 May 2019)."Women, Architecture and Representation in Mamluk Cairo".AUC DAR Home.pp. 20, 21. Archived fromthe originalon 18 December 2021.Retrieved22 December2021.
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  74. ^Clifford, W.W.; Conermann, S. (2013).State formation and the structure of politics in Mamluk Syro-Egypt, 648–741 A.H./1250–1340 C.E.Mamluk Studies. V&R Unipress. p. 105.ISBN978-3-8470-0091-4.
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  78. ^The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith, By Thomas Walker Arnold, p. 192
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Sources

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Baybars
Cadet branch of theMamluk Sultanate
Born:19 July 1223Died:1 July 1277
Regnal titles
Preceded by Sultan of Egypt and Syria
24 October 1260 – 1 July 1277 		Succeeded by
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