Bead

Abeadis a small, decorative object that is formed in a variety of shapes and sizes of a material such as stone, bone, shell, glass, plastic, wood, or pearl and with a small hole forthreadingor stringing. Beads range in size from under 1 millimeter (0.039 in) to over 1 centimeter (0.39 in) in diameter.

Beads represent some of the earliest forms ofjewellery,with a pair of beads made fromNassariussea snail shells dating to approximately 100,000 years ago thought to be the earliest known example.^[1][2]Beadworkis the art or craft of making things with beads. Beads can be woven together with specializedthread,strung onto thread or soft, flexiblewire,or adhered to a surface (e.g.fabric,clay).

Types of beads

Cloisonné beads

Beads can be divided into several types of overlapping categories based on different criteria such as the materials from which they are made, the process used in their manufacturing, the place or period of origin, the patterns on their surface, or their general shape. In some cases, such asmillefioriandcloisonnébeads, multiple categories may overlap in an interdependent fashion.

Components

Beads can be made of many different materials. The earliest beads were made of a variety of natural materials which, after they were gathered, could be readily drilled and shaped. As humans became capable of obtaining and working with more difficult materials, those materials were added to the range of available substances.^[1]

Beads were a part of different cultures, each made with different materials throughout history and using beads to form something handmade. Beads came in different colors, shapes, and forms, what materials were used, and whether there was a meaning or meaning behind the beads.

In modern manufacturing, the most common bead materials arewood,plastic,glass,metal,andstone.

Natural materials

Beads are still made from many naturally occurring materials, both organic (i.e., ofanimal- orplant-based origin) and inorganic (purelymineralorigin). However, some of these materials now routinely undergo some extra processing beyond mere shaping and drilling such as color enhancement viadyesor irradiation.

The natural organics includebone,coral,horn,ivory,seeds(such astaguanuts),animal shells,andwood.For most of human history,pearlswere the ultimate precious beads of natural origin because of their rarity; the modernpearl-culturing processhas made them far more common.Amberandjetare also of natural organic origin although both are the result of partialfossilization.

The natural inorganics include various types ofstones,ranging fromgemstonesto commonminerals,andmetals.Of the latter, only a fewprecious metalsoccur in pure forms, but other purifiedbase metalsmay as well be placed in this category along with certain naturally occurring alloys such aselectrum.

Synthetic materials

Swarovskicrystal beads (6–8 mm (0.24–0.31 in)), pendant 3 cm (1.2 in)

Swedish patent 217875: The plastic bead pegboard (1962).

The oldest-surviving synthetic materials used for bead making have generally beenceramics:potteryandglass.^[1]Beads were also made from ancient alloys such asbronzeandbrass,but as those were more vulnerable tooxidationthey have generally been less well-preserved at archaeological sites.

Many different subtypes ofglassare now used for beadmaking, some of which have their component-specific names.Lead crystalbeads have a high percentage oflead oxidein the glass formula, increasing therefractive index.Most of the other named glass types have their formulations and patterns inseparable from the manufacturing process.

Small, colorful,fusible plastic beadscan be placed on a solid plastic-backed peg array to form designs and then melted together with aclothes iron;alternatively, they can be strung into necklaces and bracelets or woven into keychains. Fusible beads come in many colors and degrees oftransparency/opacity,including varieties that glow in the dark or have internalglitter;peg boards come in various shapes and several geometric patterns. Plastic toy beads, made by chopping plastic tubes into short pieces, were introduced in 1958 by Munkplast AB inMunka-Ljungby,Sweden. Known asIndian beads,they were originally sewn together to form ribbons. The pegboard for bead designs was invented in the early 1960s (patented 1962, patent granted 1967) by Gunnar Knutsson in Vällingby, Sweden, as a therapy for elderly homes; the pegboard later gained popularity as a toy for children.^[1]The bead designs were glued to cardboard orMasoniteboards and used astrivets.Later, when the beads were made ofpolyethylene,it became possible to fuse them with a flat iron. Hama come in three sizes: mini (diameter 2 mm (0.079 in)), midi (5 mm (0.20 in)) and maxi (10 mm (0.39 in)).^[2]Perler beads come in two sizes called classic (5 mm) and biggie (10 mm). Pyssla beads (byIKEA) only come in one size (5 mm).

Manufacturing

Modernmass-producedbeads are generally shaped bycarvingorcasting,depending on the material and desired effect. In some cases, more specializedmetalworkingorglassworkingtechniques may be employed, or a combination of multiple techniques and materials may be used such as incloisonné.

Beads are small circular shapes that come in different shapes and sizes. The materials are made from different qualities such as color, shape, shine, pattern, or even exotic materials used, etc. In making beads, they have to have holes in the center in putting through a string to hold the beads together using different techniques that can help. Some archaeologists had been working at Blombos cave located in South Africa, there was a recent discovery showing forty-one marine shell (Nassarius kraussianus) beads. It was estimated that it was made about seventy-five thousand years ago.^[2]

Glassworking

Pressed glass beads (matte finish with an AB coating)

A box of assorted beads

Most glass beads arepressed glass,mass-produced by preparing a molten batch ofglass of the desired colorand pouring it into molds to form the desired shape. This is also true of mostplasticbeads.

A smaller and more expensive subset of glass and lead crystal beads are cut into precise faceted shapes on an individual basis. This was once done by hand but has largely been taken over by precision machinery.

"Fire-polished" faceted beads are a less expensive alternative to hand-cut faceted glass or crystal. They derive their name from the second half of a two-part process: first, the glass batch is poured into round bead molds, then they are faceted with a grinding wheel. The faceted beads are then poured onto a tray and briefly reheated just long enough to melt the surface, "polishing" out any minor surface irregularities from the grinding wheel.

Specialized glass techniques and types

Dichroic beads (10 millimetres (0.39 in))

Furnace glass beads

There are several specialized glassworking techniques that create a distinctive appearance throughout the body of the resulting beads, which are then primarily referred to by the glass type.

If the glass batch is used to create a large massive block instead of pre-shaping it as it cools, the result may then be carved into smaller items in the same manner as stone. Conversely, glass artisans may make beads bylampworkingthe glass on an individual basis; once formed, the beads undergo little or no further shaping after the layers have been properlyannealed.

Most of these glass subtypes are some form offused glass,althoughgoldstoneis created by controlling the reductive atmosphere and cooling conditions of the glass batch rather than by fusing separate components together.

Dichroic glassbeads incorporate a semitransparent microlayer of metal between two or more layers.Fibre opticglass beads have an eyecatchingchatoyanteffect across the grain.

There are also several ways to fuse many small glass canes together into a multicolored pattern, resulting inmillefioribeads orchevron beads(sometimes called "trade beads" ). "Furnace glass" beads encase a multicolored core in a transparent exterior layer which is then annealed in a furnace.

More economically, millefiori beads can also be made by limiting the patterning process to long, narrow canes or rods known as murrine. Thin cross-sections, or "decals", can then be cut from the murrine and fused into the surface of a plain glass bead.

Shapes

Beads can be made in variety of shapes, including the following, as well as tubular and oval-shaped beads.

Round

This is the most common shape of beads that are strung on wire to create necklaces, and bracelets. The shape of the round beads lay together and are pleasing to the eye. Round beads can be made of glass, stone, ceramic, metal, or wood.

Square or cubed

Square beads can be to enhance a necklace design as a spacer however a necklace can be strung with just square beads. The necklaces with square beads are used inRosarynecklaces/prayer necklaces, and wooden or shell ones are made for beachwear.

Hair pipe beads

Elk rib bones were the original material for the long, tubularhair pipebeads.^[3]Today these beads are commonly made ofbisonandwater buffalobones and are popular for breastplates and chokers amongPlains Indians.Black variations of these beads are made from the animals' horns.

Seed beads

Seed beads are uniformly shaped spheroidal or tube shaped beads ranging in size from under a millimetre to several millimetres. "Seed bead" is a generic term for any small bead. Usually rounded in shape, seed beads are most commonly used forloomandoff-loombead weaving.

Place or period of origin

CarvedCinnabar lacquerbeads

African trade beadsorslave beadsmay be antique beads that were manufactured in Europe and used for trade during the colonial period, such as chevron beads; or they may have been made in West Africa by and for Africans, such as MauritanianKiffa beads,Ghanaian and Nigerianpowder glass beads,or African-made brass beads. Archaeologists have documented that as recently as the late-nineteenth century beads manufactured in Europe continued to accompany exploration of Africa using Indigenous routes into the interior.^[4]
Austrian crystalis a generic term for cut lead-crystal beads, based on the location and prestige of theSwarovskifirm.
Czech glassbeads are made in theCzech Republic,in particular an area calledJablonec nad Nisou.Production of glass beads in the area dates back to the 14th century, though production was depressed under communist rule. Because of this long tradition, their workmanship and quality has an excellent reputation.
Islamic glass beadshave been made in a wide geographical and historical range ofIslamic cultures.Used and manufactured frommedieval Spainand North Africa in the West and to China in the East, they can be identified by recognizable features, including styles and techniques.^[5]
Vintage beads,in the collectibles and antique market, refers to items that are at least 25 or more years old. Vintage beads are available in materials that include lucite, plastic, crystal, metal and glass.
With beads being something that's popular, people are drawn to them and are intrigued to know more about them. People likearchaeologists,beadmakers, collectors etc. are interested in beads in knowing more about them and doing research.

Miscellaneous ethnic beads

Tibetan Dzi beadsandRudraksha beadsare used to make Buddhist and Hindu rosaries (malas).Magatamaare traditionalJapanesebeads, andcinnabarwas often used for making beads inChina.Wampumare cylindrical white or purple beads made fromquahogor North Atlanticchanneled whelkshells by northeastern Native American tribes, such as theWampanoagandShinnecock.^[6]Job's tearsare seed beads popular among southeastern Native American tribes.Heisheare beads made of shells or stones by theKewa Pueblo peopleofNew Mexico.

Bead, depicting a pomegranate,dated to theAssyrian Empireof the 8th century BCE.

Symbolic meaning of beads

In many parts of the world, beads are used for symbolic purposes, for example:

use for prayer or devotion- e.g.rosary beadsfor Roman Catholics and many other Christians,misbahafor Shia and many other Muslims,japamala/nenju for Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, some Sikhs,Confucianism,Taoists/Daoists,Shinto,etc.
use for anti-tension devices, e.g. Greekkomboloi,or worry beads.
use as currency e.g.Aggrey beadsfromGhana.
use for gaming e.g.oware beadsformancala.
Different religions around the world like Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, and many more had a role to play. Beads were used to carry letters, patterns, and ideas in counting prayers. In the medieval times era, it was common to use prayer beads in different classes. The materials that were fashioned to make them were stones, metal including bones.

History

Beads are thought to be one of the earliest forms of trade between members of the human race. It is believed that bead trading was one of the reasons why humans developed language.^[1]Beads are said to have been used and traded for most of human history. The oldest beads found to date were atBlombos Cave,about 72,000 years old, and atKsar Akil^[2]in Lebanon, about 40,000 years old.

Antique Celtic pearl,Gallic,stone

Surface patterns

After shaping, glass and crystal beads can have their surface appearance enhanced by etching a translucent frosted layer, applying an additional color layer, or both.Aurora Borealis,or AB, is a surface coating that diffuses light into a rainbow. Other surface coatings are vitrail, moonlight, dorado, satin, star shine, and heliotrope.

Faux beads are beads that are made to look like a more expensive original material, especially in the case of fakepearlsand simulated rocks,mineralsandgemstones.Precious metals andivoryare also imitated.

Tagua nutsfrom South America are used as an ivory substitute since the naturalivory tradehas been restricted worldwide.

References

^^a ^bBanks, Libby (30 January 2024)."Beadwork Regains Its Jewelry Appeal".The New York Times.Retrieved21 February2024.
^Green, James (2018)."Beadwork in the Arts of Africa and Beyond".
^Dubin 43, 44
^Cummings, Mike,Beads show European trade in African interior used Indigenous routes,Yale News. September 15, 2022
^Liu, Robert K. (October 2012)."Islamic Glass Beads"(PDF).Ornament.36(1): 58–70.Archived(PDF)from the original on 2022-10-09.Retrieved2022-02-14.^{[dead link‍]}
^Dubin, 170-171