Wikipedia

Bethlehem

This article is about the city in the West Bank. For other uses, seeBethlehem (disambiguation).

Bethlehem(/ˈbɛθlɪhɛm/;Arabic:بيت لحم,Bayt Laḥm,pronunciationⓘ;Hebrew:בֵּית לֶחֶםBēṯ Leḥem) is a city in theIsraeli-occupied West Bankof theState of Palestine,located about ten kilometres (six miles) south ofJerusalem.It is the capital of theBethlehem Governorate,and as of 2017 had a population of 28,591 people.[2]The city's economy is largelytourist-driven;international tourism peaks around and duringChristmas,whenChristiansembark on a pilgrimage to theChurch of the Nativity,revered as the location of theNativity of Jesus.[3][4]

Bethlehem
Municipality type A
Arabic transcription(s)
•Arabicبيت لحم‎
•LatinBeit Laḥm (official)
Bayt Laḥm (unofficial)
Hebrew transcription(s)
•Hebrewבֵּית לֶחֶם‎
Kiyomizu-dera temple
Bamboo Forest, Arashiyama
Kinkaku-ji temple
Rock garden, Ryōan-ji
Monmaru-goden, Nijo-jo castle
Fushimi Inari-Taisha shrine
From top, left to right:Church of the Nativity,Graffiti on theIsraeli West Bank barrier,Chapel of the Milk Grotto,Mosque of OmarinManger Square,Church of St. Catherineand skyline of the city
Official logo of Bethlehem
Municipal Seal (PNA)
Bethlehem is located in the West Bank
Bethlehem
Bethlehem
Location of Bethlehem within theWest Bank
Bethlehem is located in State of Palestine
Bethlehem
Bethlehem
Location of Bethlehem within theState of Palestine
Coordinates:31°42′16″N35°12′23″E/ 31.70444°N 35.20639°E/31.70444; 35.20639
CountryPalestine
GovernorateBethlehem
Founded1400 BCE (est.)
Government
• TypeArea A City(from 1995)
• Head of MunicipalityAnton Salman[1]
Area
•Municipality type A10,611dunams(10.611 km2or 4.097 sq mi)
Population
(2017)[2]
•Municipality type A28,591
• Density2,700/km2(7,000/sq mi)
•Metro
97,559
DemonymBethlehemi
EtymologyHouse of Meat(Arabic);House of Bread(Hebrew,Aramaic)
Websitewww.bethlehem-city.org

A possible first mention of Bethlehem is in theAmarna correspondenceofancient Egypt,dated to 1350–1330 BCE, although that reading is uncertain. In theHebrew Bible,the period of theIsraelitesis described; it identifies Bethlehem as the birthplace ofDavid.[5]In theNew Testament,the city is identified as the birthplace ofJesus of Nazareth.Under theRoman Empire,the city of Bethlehem was destroyed byHadrian,but later rebuilt byConstantine the Great,who commissioned the Church of the Nativity in 327 CE. In 529, the Church of the Nativity was heavily damaged bySamaritansinvolved in theSamaritan revolts;following the victory of theByzantine Empire,it was rebuilt byJustinian I.

Amidst theMuslim conquest of the Levant,Bethlehem became part ofJund Filastinin 637.Muslimscontinued to rule the city until 1099, when it was conquered by theCrusaders,who replaced the local ChristianGreek Orthodoxclergy withCatholicones. In the mid-13th century, Bethlehem's walls were demolished by theMamluk Sultanate.However, they were rebuilt by theOttoman Empirein the 16th century, following theOttoman–Mamluk War.[6]After the dissolution of theOttoman Empireat the end ofWorld War I,it became part ofMandatory Palestineuntil 1948, when it wasannexedbyJordanduring the1948 Arab–Israeli War.During the 1967Six Day War,Bethlehem was occupied by Israel along with the rest of the West Bank. Since theOslo Accordsbetween Israel and thePalestinian National Authority,Bethlehem has been designated as part ofArea A of the West Bank,nominally rendering it as being underPalestinian control.[6]Movement around the city is limited due to theIsraeli West Bank barrier.

While it was historically a city ofArab Christians,Bethlehem now has a majority ofArab Muslims;while it is still home to a significant population ofPalestinian Christians,this community has dwindled significantly, mostly due to difficulties resulting from living under the Israeli occupation.[7]Presently, Bethlehem has become encircled by dozens ofIsraeli settlements,which significantly hinder the ability ofPalestiniansin the city to openly access their land and livelihoods, which has contributed to the exodus of Palestinians.[8]

Etymology

The current name for Bethlehem in local languages isBayt Laḥmⓘ/Bēt laḥm/ in Arabic (Arabic:بيت لحم), literally meaning "house of meat", andBet Leḥemin Hebrew (Hebrew:בֵּית לֶחֶם), literally "house of bread" or "house of food."[9][10]The city was called inAncient Greek:ΒηθλεέμGreek pronunciation:[bɛːtʰle.ém]and inLatin:Bethleem.[11]Amarna letter EA290makes reference to a town bīt-ninurta which has been read as Bit-Lachmi by scholarW. F. Albright,following a proposal by Otto Schroeder in 1815 and making it a potential first historical reference to Bethlehem. This reading is, however, uncertain and has met with objections.[12]

"House of the god Lahmu"

Canaanite and Israelite toponyms starting withbethare interpreted to mean "house of", with 'house' understood as 'temple' and the second part of the name indicating the deity the local temple was dedicated to.[13][14]Accordingly, one longstanding suggestion in scholarship is that the name Bethlehem derives from theMesopotamianorCanaanitefertility godLaḫmuand his consort sisterLahamu,[15]lahmobeing theChaldeanword for "fertility".[11][14]Biblical scholarWilliam F. Albrightbelieved that this hypothesis, first put forth byOtto Schröder[de],was "certainly accurate".[a]Albright noted that the pronunciation of the name had remained essentially the same for 3,500 years, even if the perceived meaning had shifted over time: "'Temple of the God Lakhmu' in Canaanite, 'House of Bread' in Hebrew andAramaic,'House of Meat' in Arabic. "[16]While Schröder's theory is not widely accepted,[9]it continues to find favour in academic literature over the later literal translations.[17]

"House of war"

Another suggestion is an association with the rootl-h-m"to fight", leading to the meaning of "house of war" or "house of fighting", but this is thought unlikely.[9][why?]

History

Canaanite period

The earliest reference to Bethlehem appears in theAmarna correspondence(c. 1400 BCE). In one of his six letters to Pharaoh,Abdi-Heba,the Egyptian-appointed governor of Jerusalem, appeals for aid in retakingBit-Laḫmiin the wake of disturbances byApirumercenaries:[18]"Now even a town near Jerusalem, Bit-Lahmi by name, a village which once belonged to the king, has fallen to the enemy... Let the king hear the words of your servant Abdi-Heba, and send archers to restore the imperial lands of the king!"

It is thought that the similarity of this name to its modern forms indicates that it was originally a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural and linguistic heritage with the later arrivals.[19]Laḫmuwas theAkkadiangod of fertility,[20]worshipped by theCanaanitesasLeḥem.[citation needed]Some time in the third millennium BCE, Canaanites erected a temple on the hill now known as the Hill of the Nativity, probably dedicated toLaḫmu.The temple, and subsequently the town that formed around it, was then known asBeit Lahama,"House (Temple) of Lahmu".[citation needed]By1200 BC,the area of Bethlehem, as well as much of theregion,was conquered by thePhilistines,which led the region to be known to the Greeks as "Philistia",later corrupted to"Palestine".[21]

A burial ground discovered in spring 2013, and surveyed in 2015 by a joint Italian–Palestinian team found that the necropolis covered 3 hectares (more than 7 acres) and originally contained more than 100 tombs in use between roughly 2200 BCE and 650 BCE. The archaeologists were able to identify at least 30 tombs.[22]

Israelite and Judean period

Archaeological confirmation of Bethlehem as a city in theKingdom of Judahwas uncovered in 2012 at the archaeological dig at theCity of Davidin the form of abulla(seal impression in dried clay) inancient Hebrew scriptthat reads "From the town of Bethlehem to the King." According to the excavators, it was used to seal the string closing a shipment of grain, wine, or other goods sent as a tax payment in the 8th or 7th century BCE.[23]

David, pouring out water drawn from the well of Bethlehem in this 1860 woodcut byJulius Schnorr von Karolsfeld,which illustrates2 Samuel 23:15–17

Biblical scholarsbelieve Bethlehem, located in the "hill country" ofJudea,may be the same as the BiblicalEphrath,[24]which means "fertile", as there is a reference to it in theBook of Micahas Bethlehem Ephratah.[25]TheHebrew Biblealso calls it Beth-LehemJudah,[26]and theNew Testamentdescribes it as the "City of David".[27]It is first mentioned in the Bible as the place where the matriarchRacheldied and was buried "by the wayside" (Genesis 48:7).Rachel's Tomb,the traditional grave site, stands at the entrance to Bethlehem. According to theBook of Ruth,the valley to the east is whereRuthofMoabgleaned the fields and returned to town withNaomi.In theBooks of Samuel,Bethlehem is mentioned as the home ofJesse,[28]father of KingDavidofIsrael,and the site of David'sanointmentby the prophetSamuel.[29]It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warriors brought him water when he was hiding in the cave ofAdullam.[30]

Writing in the 4th century, thePilgrim of Bordeauxreported that the sepulchers of David,Ezekiel,Asaph,Job,Jesse,andSolomonwere located near Bethlehem.[31]

Classical period

See also:Census of Quirinius
Adoration of the Shepherds(1622) by the Dutch painterGerard van Honthorst.According to theGospels of MatthewandLuke,Jesuswas born in Bethlehem.[32][33][34]

TheGospel of MatthewMatthew 1:18–2:23[35]and theGospel of LukeLuke 2:1–39[36]representJesusas having been born in Bethlehem,[32][33][34]known at the time asבית לחמא(Beit Lachma) in Aramaic, meaning "House of Bread". Modern scholars, however, regard the two accounts as contradictory[33][34]and theGospel of Mark,the earliest gospel, mentions nothing about Jesus having been born in Bethlehem, saying only that he came fromNazareth.[34]Current scholars are divided on the actual birthplace of Jesus: some believe he was actually born in Nazareth,[37][38][39]while others still hold that he was born in Bethlehem.[40]

Nonetheless, the tradition that Jesus was born in Bethlehem was prominent in the early church.[32]In around 155, the apologistJustin Martyrrecommended that those who doubted Jesus was really born in Bethlehem could go there and visit the very cave where he was supposed to have been born.[32]The same cave is also referenced by the apocryphalGospel of Jamesand the fourth-century church historianEusebius.[32]After theBar Kokhba revolt(c.132–136 CE) was crushed, the Roman emperorHadrianconverted the Christian site above the Grotto into a shrine dedicated to theGreekgodAdonis,to honour his favourite, the Greek youthAntinous.[41][42]

In around 395 CE, theChurch FatherJeromewrote in a letter: "Bethlehem... belonging now to us... was overshadowed by a grove ofTammuz,that is to say,Adonis,and in the cave where once the infant Christ cried, the lover ofVenuswas lamented. "[43]Many scholars have taken this letter as evidence that the cave of the nativity over which theChurch of the Nativitywas later built had at one point been a shrine to the ancient Near Eastern fertility god Tammuz.[43][44]Eusebius, however, mentions nothing about the cave having been associated with Tammuz[43]and there are no other Patristic sources that suggest Tammuz had a shrine in Bethlehem.[43]Peter Welten has argued that the cave was never dedicated to Tammuz[43]and that Jerome misinterpreted Christian mourning over theMassacre of the Innocentsas a pagan ritual over Tammuz's death.[43]Joan E. Taylor has countered this contention by arguing that Jerome, as an educated man, could not have been so naïve as to mistake Christian mourning over the Massacre of the Innocents as a pagan ritual for Tammuz.[43]

In 326–328, the empressHelena,widowedconsortof EmperorConstantius Chlorusand mother of the ruling emperor,Constantine the Great,made a pilgrimage to Syria-Palaestina, in the course of which she visited the ruins of Bethlehem.[6][32]TheChurch of the Nativitywas built at her initiative over the cave where Jesus was purported to have been born.[32]During theSamaritan revoltof 529, Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed; they were rebuilt on the orders of the EmperorJustinian I.[6][32]In 614, thePersian Sassanid Empire,supported byJewish rebels,invadedPalestina Primaand captured Bethlehem.[45]A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the church on seeing themagidepicted inPersianclothing in a mosaic.[46][6]

Middle Ages

1698 sketch byCornelis de Bruijn

In 637, shortly afterJerusalem was capturedby theMuslim armies,'Umar ibn al-Khattāb,the secondCaliph,promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use.[6]Amosquededicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed, next to the church.[47]Bethlehem then passed through the control of the Islamic caliphates of theUmayyadsin the 8th century, then theAbbasidsin the 9th century. APersiangeographer recorded in the mid-9th century that a well preserved and much venerated church existed in the town. In 985, theArabgeographeral-Muqaddasivisited Bethlehem, and referred to its church as the "Basilica of Constantine, the equal of which does not exist anywhere in the country-round."[48]In 1009, during the reign of the sixth Fatimid Caliph,al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah,the Church of the Nativity was ordered to be demolished, but was spared by local Muslims, because they had been permitted to worship in the structure's southern transept.[49]

In 1099, Bethlehem was captured by theCrusaders,who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity. TheGreek Orthodoxclergy were removed from theirseesand replaced withLatinclerics. Up until that point the official Christian presence in the region was Greek Orthodox. On Christmas Day 1100,Baldwin I,first king of the FrankishKingdom of Jerusalem,was crowned in Bethlehem, and that year a Latin episcopate was also established in the town.[6]

In 1187,Saladin,the Sultan ofEgyptandSyriawho led theMuslim Ayyubids,captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders. The Latin clerics were forced to leave, allowing the Greek Orthodox clergy to return. Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192. However, Bethlehem suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade, as there was a sharp decrease of European pilgrims.[6]William IV, Count of Nevershad promised the Christian bishops of Bethlehem that if Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control, he would welcome them in the small town ofClamecyin present-dayBurgundy,France. As a result, the Bishop of Bethlehem duly took up residence in the hospital of Panthenor, Clamecy, in 1223. Clamecy remained the continuous 'in partibus infidelium' seat of the Bishopric of Bethlehem for almost 600 years, until theFrench Revolutionin 1789.[50]

Bethlehem, along with Jerusalem,Nazareth,andSidon,was briefly ceded to the CrusaderKingdom of Jerusalemby a treaty betweenHoly Roman EmperorFrederick IIand Ayyubid Sultanal-Kamilin 1229, in return for a ten-year truce between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders. The treaty expired in 1239, and Bethlehem was recaptured by the Muslims in 1244.[51]In 1250, with the coming to power of theMamluksunderRukn al-Din Baibars,tolerance of Christianity declined. Members of the clergy left the city, and in 1263 the town walls were demolished. The Latin clergy returned to Bethlehem the following century, establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining the Basilica of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox were given control of the basilica and shared control of the Milk Grotto with the Latins and theArmenians.[6]

Ottoman era

A painting of Bethlehem byVasily Polenov,1882
View of Bethlehem, Christmas Day 1898

From 1517, during the years ofOttomancontrol, custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and GreekOrthodox churches.[6]By the end of the 16th century, Bethlehem had become one of the largest villages in the District of Jerusalem, and was subdivided into seven quarters.[52]The Basbus family served as the heads of Bethlehem among other leaders during this period.[53]The Ottoman tax record and census from 1596 indicates that Bethlehem had a population of 1,435, making it the 13th largest village in Palestine at the time. Its total revenue amounted to 30,000akce.[54]

Bethlehem paid taxes on wheat, barley and grapes. The Muslims and Christians were organized into separate communities, each having its own leader. Five leaders represented the village in the mid-16th century, three of whom were Muslims. Ottoman tax records suggest that the Christian population was slightly more prosperous or grew more grain than grapes (the former being a more valuable commodity).[55]

From 1831 to 1841, Palestine was under the rule of theMuhammad Ali DynastyofEgypt.During this period, the town sufferedan earthquakeas well as the destruction of the Muslim quarter in 1834 by Egyptian troops, apparently as a reprisal for the murder of a favored loyalist ofIbrahim Pasha,during thePeasants' revolt in Palestine.[56]In 1841, Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once again and remained so until the end of World War I. Under the Ottomans, Bethlehem's inhabitants faced unemployment,compulsory military service,and heavy taxes, resulting in mass emigration, particularly toSouth America.[6]An American missionary in the 1850s reported a population of under 4,000, nearly all of whom belonged to the Greek Church. He also noted that a lack of water limited the town's growth.[57]

Socinfound from an official Ottoman village list from about 1870 that Bethlehem had a population of 179 Muslims in 59 houses, 979 "Latins" in 256 houses, 824 "Greeks" in 213 houses, and 41 Armenians in 11 houses, a total of 539 houses. The population count only included men.[58]Hartmannfound that Bethlehem had 520 houses.[59]

Modern era

Bethlehem 1937
2018United Nationsmap of the area, showing theIsraeli occupationarrangements.
1927 stamp from theMandatory Palestineperiod, showcasingRachel's Tomb(or Bilal bin Rabah Mosque) in Bethlehem

Bethlehem was part ofMandatory Palestinefrom 1920 to 1948.[60]In theUnited Nations General Assembly's1947 resolution to partition Palestine,Bethlehem was included in theinternational enclave of Jerusalemto be administered by theUnited Nations.[61]Jordancaptured the city during the1948 Arab–Israeli War.[62]Many refugees from areas captured byIsraeliforces in 1947–48 fled to the Bethlehem area, primarily settling in what became the official refugee camps of'Azza(Beit Jibrin) and'Aidain the north andDheishehin the south.[63]The influx of refugees significantly transformed Bethlehem's Christian majority into a Muslim one.[64]

Jordan retained control of the city until theSix-Day Warin 1967, when Bethlehem was captured by Israel, along with the rest of theWest Bank.Following the Six-Day War, Israel took control of the city.

Israeli West Bank barrierin Bethlehem in 2012

During the early months ofFirst Intifada,on 5 May 1989, Milad Anton Shahin, aged 12, was shot dead byIsraeli soldiers.Replying to a Member ofKnessetin August 1990 Defence MinisterYitzak Rabinstated that a group of reservists in an observation post had come under attack by stone throwers. The commander of the post, a senior non-commissioned officer, fired twoplastic bulletsin deviation of operational rules. No evidence was found that this caused the boy's death. The officer was found guilty of illegal use of a weapon and sentenced to 5 months imprisonment, two of them actually in prison doing public service. He was also demoted.[65]

On December 21, 1995, Israeli troops withdrew from Bethlehem,[66]and three days later the city came under the administration and military control of thePalestinian National Authorityin accordance with theInterim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[67]When the Palestinian Authority assumed control in 1995, it publicly extended the boundaries of Bethlehem, allegedly to secure a Muslim majority.[68]This expansion incorporated over 30,000 Muslims from nearby refugee camps into the city.[68]Yasser Arafat, then the leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), unilaterally replaced the predominantly Christian city council with a leadership that was largely Muslim.[68]During theSecond Palestinian Intifadain 2000–2005, Bethlehem's infrastructure andtourismindustry were damaged.[69][70]In 2002, it was a primary combat zone inOperation Defensive Shield,a major military counteroffensive by theIsraeli Defense Forces(IDF).[71]The IDFbesieged the Church of the Nativity,where dozens of Palestinian militants had sought refuge. The siege lasted 39 days. Several militants were killed. It ended with an agreement to exile 13 of the militants to foreign countries.[72]

Today, the city is surrounded by two bypass roads forIsraeli settlers,leaving the inhabitants squeezed between thirty-seven Jewish enclaves, where a quarter of all West Bank settlers, roughly 170,000, live; the gap between the two roads is closed by the 8-metre highIsraeli West Bank barrier,which cuts Bethlehem off from its sister city Jerusalem.[73]In 2002 the Church of Nativity was broken into by 200 militiamen who held priests and nuns hostages and plundered the church's coffers, it was subsequently sieged by Israeli forces until a deal was reached.[74][75]

The Walled Off Hotel,owned and decorated byBanksy

Christian families that have lived in Bethlehem for hundreds of years are being forced to leave as land in Bethlehem is seized, and homes bulldozed, for construction of thousands of new Israeli homes.[8]Land seizures for Israeli settlements have also prevented construction of a new hospital for the inhabitants of Bethlehem, as well as the barrier separating dozens of Palestinian families from their farmland and Christian communities from their places of worship.[8]Christians have reportedly suffered persecution under the Palestinian Authority, leading to emigration.[68]/>[76][77]According toInternational Christian Concern,there are reports of Christians suffering sexual harassments, kidnappings, forced marriages, extortion and murder of converts by Muslims and PA officials.[78][79]

Geography

Residence of theCongregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Betharram,2008

Bethlehem is located at an elevation of about 775 meters (2,543 ft)above sea level,30 meters (98 ft) higher than nearbyJerusalem.[80]Bethlehem is situated on theJudean Mountains.

The city is located 73 kilometers (45 mi) northeast ofGaza Cityand theMediterranean Sea,75 kilometers (47 mi) west ofAmman,Jordan,59 kilometers (37 mi) southeast ofTel Aviv,Israeland 10 kilometers (6 mi) south of Jerusalem.[81]Nearby cities and towns includeBeit Safafaand Jerusalem to the north,Beit Jalato the northwest,Husanto the west,al-KhadrandArtasto the southwest, andBeit Sahourto the east. Beit Jala and the latter form anagglomerationwith Bethlehem. TheAidaandAzzarefugee camps are located within the city limits.[82]

In the center of Bethlehem is its old city. The old city consists of eight quarters, laid out in a mosaic style, forming the area around the Manger Square. The quarters include the Christian an-Najajreh, al-Farahiyeh, al-Anatreh, al-Tarajmeh, al-Qawawsa and Hreizat quarters and al-Fawaghreh—the only Muslim quarter.[83]Most of the Christian quarters are named after the ArabGhassanidclans that settled there.[84]Al-Qawawsa Quarter was formed byArab Christianemigrants from the nearby town ofTuqu'in the 18th century.[85]There is also aSyriacquarter outside of the old city,[83]whose inhabitants originate fromMidyatandMa'asarteinTurkey.[86]The total population of the old city is about 5,000.[83]

Climate

Bethlehem has aMediterranean climate(Köppen climate classification:Csa), with hot and dry summers and mild, wetter winters. Winter temperatures (mid-December to mid-March) can be cool and rainy. January is the coldest month, with temperatures ranging from 1 to 13 degree Celsius (33–55 °F). From May through September, the weather is warm and sunny. August is the hottest month, with a high of 30 degrees Celsius (86 °F). Bethlehem receives an average of 700 millimeters (28 in) of rainfall annually, 70% between November and January.[87]

Bethlehem's average annual relativehumidityis 60% and reaches its highest rates between January and February. Humidity levels are at their lowest in May. Night dew may occur in up to 180 days per year. The city is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea breeze that occurs around mid-day. However, Bethlehem is affected also by annual waves of hot, dry, sandy and dustKhamaseenwinds from theArabian Desert,during April, May and mid-June.[87]

Climate data for Bethlehem
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 12
(54) 		13
(55) 		16
(61) 		22
(72) 		26
(79) 		28
(82) 		30
(86) 		30
(86) 		28
(82) 		26
(79) 		20
(68) 		14
(57) 		22
(72)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 5
(41) 		5
(41) 		7
(45) 		10
(50) 		14
(57) 		17
(63) 		19
(66) 		19
(66) 		17
(63) 		15
(59) 		11
(52) 		7
(45) 		12
(54)
Average rainy days 12 11 9 4 2 0 0 0 0 3 7 11 59
Average snowy days 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3
Source: myweather2.com[88]

Demographics

Population

Year Population
1867 3,000–4,000[89]
1945 8,820[90][91]
1961 22,453[92]
1983 16,300[93][verification needed]
1997 21,930[94]
2007 25,266[94]
2017 28,591[95]
Mosque of Omar,theEvangelical Lutheran Christmas Church,and the Salesian Church of theSacred Heart of Jesus

According toOttoman tax records,Christians made up roughly 60% of the population in the early 16th century, while the Christian andMuslimpopulations became equal by the middle of that century. However, there were no Muslim inhabitants counted by the end of the century, with a recorded population of 287 adult male taxpayers. Christians, like all non-Muslims throughout the Ottoman Empire, were required to pay thejizyatax.[52]In 1867, an American visitor describes the town as having a population of 3,000 to 4,000, of whom about 100 wereProtestant,300 were Muslim and "the remainder belonging to the Latin and Greek Churches with a few Armenians."[89]Another report from the same year puts the Christian population at 3,000, with an additional 50 Muslims.[96]An 1885 source put the population at approximately 6,000 of "principally Christians, Latins and Greeks" with no Jewish inhabitants.[97]

Thecensus of 1922lists Bethlehem as having 6,658 residents (5,838 Christians, 818 Muslims, and two Jews),[98]increasing in1931to 6,804 (5,588 Christians, 1,219 Muslims, five with no religion, and two Jews) with 506 in nearby suburbs (251 Muslims, 216 Christians, and 39 Jews).[99]

The 1938 village statistics list the population as 7,520 with 499 in nearby suburbs (including 42 Jews).[100]The1945 village statisticslist Bethlehem's population as 8,820 (6,430 Christians, 2,370 Muslims, and 20 "other" ).[101]

In 1948, the religious makeup of the city was 85% Christian, mostly of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic denominations, and 13% Muslim.[102]In the 1967 census taken by Israel authorities, the town of Bethlehem proper numbered 14,439 inhabitants, its 7,790 Muslim inhabitants represented 53.9% of the population, while the Christians of various denominations numbered 6,231 or 46.1%.[103][better source needed]

In the PCBS's 1997 census, the city had a population of 21,670, including a total of 6,570refugees,accounting for 30.3% of the city's population.[94][104]In 1997, the age distribution of Bethlehem's inhabitants was 27.4% under the age of 10, 20% from 10 to 19, 17.3% from 20 to 29, 17.7% from 30 to 44, 12.1% from 45 to 64 and 5.3% above the age of 65. There were 11,079 males and 10,594 females.[94]In the 2007 PCBS census, Bethlehem had a population of 25,266, of which 12,753 were males and 12,513 were females. There were 6,709 housing units, of which 5,211 were households. The average household consisted of 4.8 family members.[105]By 2017, the population was 28,591.[95]

Christian population

See also:Palestinian Christians
Four Bethlehemi Christian women, 1911

After theMuslim conquest of the Levantin the 630s, the local Christians wereArabizedeven though large numbers were ethnically Arabs of the Ghassanid clans.[106]Bethlehem's two largest Arab Christian clans trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids, including al-Farahiyyah and an-Najajreh.[106]The former have descended from the Ghassanids who migrated fromYemenand from theWadi Musaarea in present-dayJordanand an-Najajreh descend fromNajran.[106]Another Bethlehem clan, al-Anatreh, also trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids.[106]

The percentage of Christians in the town has been in a steady decline since the mid-twentieth century.[102][107][108][109]In 1947, Christians made up 85% of the population, but by 1998, the figure had declined to 40%.[102][107]In 2005, themayor of Bethlehem,Victor Batarseh,explained that "due to the stress, either physical or psychological, and the bad economic situation, many people are emigrating, either Christians or Muslims, but it is more apparent among Christians, because they already are a minority."[110]The Palestinian Authority is officially committed to equality for Christians, although there have been incidents of violence against them by thePreventive Security Serviceand militant factions.[111][112]

In 2006, aZogbypoll that interviewed more than 1,000 Palestinian Christians from Bethlehem found that 79% of the respondents cited theIsraeli occupationas source of difficulties leading the emigration of their community.[7]In the same year, the Palestinian Centre for Research and Cultural Dialogue conducted a poll among the city's Christians according to which 90% said they had had Muslim friends, 73.3% agreed that the PNA treated Christian heritage in the city with respect and 78% attributed the exodus of Christians to the Israeli blockade.[113]The only mosque in the Old City is theMosque of Omar,located in the Manger Square.[47]By 2016, the Christian population of Bethlehem had declined to only 16%.[108]The Christian population's proportion of Bethlehem fell from 87% in the 1950s to 12% in 2016.[114]

A study byPew Research Centerconcluded that the decline in the Arab Christian population of the area was partially a result of a lowerbirth rateamong Christians than among Muslims,[108][115]but also partially due to the fact that Christians were more likely to emigrate from the region than any other religious group.[108][115]The seizure of Christian land by Muslim mafias and the bias of the Palestinian Judicial system have been cited as reasons leading to emigration.[116]Amon Ramnon, a researcher at theJerusalem Institute for Policy Research,stated that the reason why more Christians were emigrating than Muslims is because it is easier for Arab Christians to integrate into western communities than for Arab Muslims, since many of them attend church-affiliated schools, where they are taught European languages.[108]A higher percentage of Christians in the region are urban-dwellers, which also makes it easier for them to emigrate and assimilate into western populations.[108]Astatistical analysisof the Christian exodus cited lack of economic and educational opportunity, especially due to the Christians'middle-classstatus andhigher education.[117]Since theSecond Intifada,10% of the Christian population have left the city.[110]However, it is likely that there are many other factors, most of which are shared with the Palestinian population as a whole.[118]

Economy

High-rise construction in Bethlehem
InterContinentalJacir Palace

Shopping is a major attraction, especially during theChristmasseason. The city's main streets and old markets are lined with shops sellingPalestinian handicrafts,Middle Easternspices, jewelry and oriental sweets such asbaklawa.[119]Olivewood carvings[120]are the item most purchased by tourists visiting Bethlehem.[121]Religious handicrafts include ornaments handmade frommother-of-pearl,as well as olive wood statues, boxes, and crosses.[120]Other industries include stone and marble-cutting, textiles, furniture and furnishings.[122]Bethlehem factories also produce paints, plastics,synthetic rubber,pharmaceuticals, construction materials and food products, mainly pasta and confectionery.[122] Cremisan Wine,founded in 1885, is a winery run by monks in the Monastery of Cremisan. The grapes are grown mainly in theal-Khaderdistrict. In 2007, the monastery's wine production was around 700,000 liters per year.[123]

In 2008, Bethlehem hosted the largesteconomic conferenceto date in thePalestinian territories.It was initiated byPalestinian Prime Ministerand formerFinance MinisterSalam Fayyadto convince more than a thousand businessmen, bankers and government officials from throughout theMiddle Eastto invest in the West Bank andGaza Strip.A total of 1.4 billion US dollars was secured for business investments in the Palestinian territories.[124]Tourism is Bethlehem's main industry.[109][69]Unlike other Palestinian localities prior to 2000, the majority of the employed residents did not have jobs in Israel.[69]More than 20% of the working population is employed in the industry.[125]Tourism accounts for approximately 65% of the city's economy and 11% of thePalestinian National Authority.[126]The city has more than two million visitors every year.[125]Tourism in Bethlehem ground to a halt for over a decade after theSecond Intifada,[109]but gradually began to pick back up in the early 2010s.[109]Schneider Electricoperates a facility in the Multidisciplinary Industrial Park of Bethlehem, which was developed by thePalestinian governmentandFrance.[127]

TheChurch of the Nativityis one of Bethlehem's majortourist attractionsand a magnet for Christian pilgrims. It stands in the center of the city — a part of theManger Square— over a grotto or cave called the Holy Crypt, where Jesus is believed to have been born. Nearby is the Milk Grotto where the Holy Family took refuge on their Flight to Egypt and next door is the cave whereSt. Jeromespent thirty years creating theVulgate,the dominant Latin version of the Bible until the Reformation.[6]There are over thirty hotels in Bethlehem.[128]Jacir Palace,built in 1910 near the church, is one of Bethlehem's most successful hotels and its oldest. It was closed down in 2000 due to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, but reopened in 2005 as the Jacir Palace InterContinental at Bethlehem.[129]The hotel is managed by world renowned international brand — theIntercontinental Hotel Group(IHG) and is second IHG hotel in the country afterIHGinJerusalem.

Religious significance and commemoration

Birthplace of Jesus

Further information:Church of the NativityandNativity of Jesus
Silver star marking the place where Jesus was born according to Christian tradition
Altar of the Magi opposite the Holy Manger, Nativity Grotto
Catholic procession onChristmas Eve2006
Christmas treein Bethlehem; behind it, theChurch of the Nativity,2014

In theNew Testament,theGospel of Lukesays thatJesus' parents traveled fromNazarethto Bethlehem, where Jesus was born.[27]TheGospel of Matthewmentions Bethlehem as the place of birth,[130]and adds that King Herod was told that a 'King of the Jews' had been born in the town, prompting Herod to order the killing of all the boys who were two years old or under in the town and surrounding area.Joseph,warned of Herod's impending action by anangel of the Lord,decided to flee to Egypt with his family and then later settled in Nazareth after Herod's death.

Early Christian traditions describeJesusas being born in Bethlehem: in one account, a verse in theBook of Micahis interpreted as a prophecy that theMessiahwould be born there.[131]The second centuryChristian apologistJustin Martyrstated in hisDialogue with Trypho(written c. 155–161) that theHoly Familyhad taken refuge in a cave outside of the town and then placed Jesus in a manger.[132]Origenof Alexandria, writing around the year 247, referred to a cave in the town of Bethlehem which local people believed was the birthplace of Jesus.[133]This cave was possibly one which had previously been a site of the cult ofTammuz.[134][135][136][137][138]TheGospel of Markand the Gospel of John do not include a nativity narrative, but refer to him only as being from Nazareth.[139]In a 2005 article inArchaeologymagazine, archaeologist Aviram Oshri points to an absence of evidence for the settlement of Bethlehem near Jerusalem at the time when Jesus was born, and postulates that Jesus was born inBethlehem of Galilee.[140]However, other archaeologists argue that there is evidence that Bethlehem of Judea was inhabited at that time.[141]: 6–10 In a 2011 article inBiblical Archaeology Reviewmagazine,Jerome Murphy-O'Connorargues for the traditional position that Jesus was born in Bethlehem near Jerusalem.[142]

Christmas celebrations

Christmas pilgrims, 1890

Christmas rites are held in Bethlehem on three different dates: December 25 is the traditional date by the Roman Catholic andProtestantdenominations, but Greek,CopticandSyrian OrthodoxChristians celebrate Christmas on January 6 andArmenian OrthodoxChristians on January 19. Most Christmas processions pass through Manger Square, the plaza outside theBasilica of the Nativity.Roman Catholic services take place inSt. Catherine's Churchand Protestants often hold services at Shepherds' Fields.[143]

Other religious festivals

Bethlehem celebrates festivals related to saints and prophets associated with Palestinian folklore. One such festival is the annualFeast of Saint George(al-Khadr) on May 5–6. During the celebrations, Greek Orthodox Christians from the city march in procession to the nearby town ofal-Khaderto baptize newborns in the waters around theMonastery of St. Georgeand sacrifice a sheep in ritual.[144]The Feast of St.Elijahis commemorated by a procession to Mar Elias, a Greek Orthodox monastery north of Bethlehem.

Culture

Embroidery

See also:Palestinian costumes
Woman in traditional Bethlehem costume

The women embroiderers of Bethlehem were known for their bridalwear.[145]Bethlehem embroidery was renowned for its "strong overall effect of colors and metallic brilliance."[146]Less formal dresses were made of indigo fabric with a sleeveless coat (bisht) from locally woven wool worn over top. Dresses for special occasions were made of striped silk with winged sleeves with a shorttaqsirehjacket known as the Bethlehem jacket. The taqsireh was made ofvelvetorbroadcloth,usually with heavy embroidery.[145]

Bethlehem work was unique in its use of couched gold or silver cord, or silk cord onto the silk, wool, felt or velvet used for the garment, to create stylized floral patterns with free or rounded lines. This technique was used for "royal"wedding dresses(thob malak), taqsirehs and theshatwehsworn by married women. It has been traced by some toByzantium,and by others to the formal costumes of the Ottoman Empire's elite. As a Christian village, local women were also exposed to the detailing on church vestments with their heavy embroidery and silver brocade.[145]

  • Bethlehem traditional dress
  • Chest panel from Bethlehem dress
  • Embroidery detail
  • Taqsirehjacket embroidered with Palestinian patterns
  • Shatweh,a headdresses worn by married women

Mother-of-pearl carving

Main article:Mother-of-pearl carving in Bethlehem
Craftsmen working withmother-of-pearl,early 20th century

The art of mother-of-pearl carving is said to have been a Bethlehem tradition since the 15th century when it was introduced byFranciscanfriarsfromItaly.[147]A constant stream ofpilgrimsgenerated a demand for these items, which also provided jobs for women.[148]The industry was noted byRichard Pococke,who visited Bethlehem in 1727.[149]

Cultural centers and museums

Bethlehem is home to thePalestinian Heritage Center,established in 1991. The center aims to preserve and promote Palestinian embroidery,artand folklore.[150]The International Center of Bethlehem is another cultural center that concentrates primarily on the culture of Bethlehem. It provides language and guide training, woman's studies andarts and craftsdisplays, and training.[4]

Inside of thePalestinian Heritage Center

The Bethlehem branch ofthe Edward Said National Conservatory of Musichas about 500 students. Its primary goals are to teach children music, train teachers for other schools, sponsor music research, and the study of Palestinian folklore music.[151]

Bethlehem has several museums: The Crib of the Nativity Theatre and Museum offers visitors 31 three-dimensional models depicting the significant stages of the life of Jesus. Its theater presents a 20-minute animated show. TheBadd Giacaman Museum,located in the Old City of Bethlehem, dates back to the 18th century and is primarily dedicated to the history and process ofolive oilproduction.[4]Baituna al-Talhami Museum,established in 1972, contains displays of Bethlehem culture.[4]The International Museum of Nativity was built byUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization(UNESCO) to exhibit "high artistic quality in an evocative atmosphere".[4]ThePalestine Museum of Natural Historyis the first of its kind and is based on Bethlehem University campus.[152]

Local government

Bethlehem is themuhfaza(seat) or district capital of theBethlehem Governorate.

Bethlehem held its first municipal elections in 1876, after themukhtars( "heads" ) of the quarters of Bethlehem's Old City (excluding theSyriac Quarter) made the decision to elect a local council of seven members to represent each clan in the town. ABasic Lawwas established so that if the victor for mayor was aCatholic,his deputy should be of theGreek Orthodoxcommunity.[153]

Bethlehem Governoratebuilding

Throughout, Bethlehem's rule by the British and Jordan, the Syriac Quarter was allowed to participate in the election, as were the Ta'amrahBedouinsand Palestinian refugees, hence ratifying the number of municipal members in the council to 11. In 1976, an amendment was passed to allow women to vote and become council members and later the voting age was increased from 21 to 25.[153]

There are several branches of political parties on the council, includingCommunist,Islamist,and secular. The leftist factions of thePalestine Liberation Organization(PLO) such as thePopular Front for the Liberation of Palestine(PFLP) and thePalestinian People's Party(PPP) usually dominate the reserved seats.Hamasgained the majority of the open seats in the 2005Palestinian municipal elections.[154]

Mayors

Bethlehem Municipality building inManger Square

In the October 2012 municipal elections, Fatah member Vera Baboun won, becoming the first femalemayor of Bethlehem.[155]

Education

Banksymural inBeit Sahour

According to thePalestinian Central Bureau of Statistics(PCBS), in 1997, approximately 84% of Bethlehem's population over the age of 10 was literate. Of the city's population, 10,414 were enrolled in schools (4,015 inprimary school,3,578 in secondary and 2,821 in high school). About 14.1% of high school students received diplomas.[158]There were 135 schools in theBethlehem Governoratein 2006; 100 run theEducation Ministry of the Palestinian National Authority,seven by theUnited Nations Relief and Works Agency(UNRWA) and 28 were private.[159]

Bethlehem Universitymain building

Bethlehem is home toBethlehem University,aCatholicChristian co-educational institution of higher learning founded in 1973 in the Lasallian tradition, open to students of all faiths. Bethlehem University is the first university established in the West Bank, and can trace its roots to 1893 when theDe La Salle Christian Brothersopened schools throughout Palestine and Egypt.[160]

Transportation

A street in Bethlehem

Bethlehem has three bus stations owned by private companies which offer service to Jerusalem, Beit Jala, Beit Sahour,Hebron,Nahalin,Battir,al-Khader,al-UbeidiyaandBeit Fajjar.There are two taxi stations that make trips to Beit Sahour, Beit Jala, Jerusalem,Tuqu'andHerodium.There are also two car rental departments: Murad and 'Orabi. Buses and taxis with West Bank licenses are not allowed to enter Israel, including Jerusalem, without a permit.[161]

The Israeli construction of theWest Bank barrierhas affected Bethlehem politically, socially, and economically. The barrier is located along the northern side of the town's built-up area, within distance of houses in the Aidarefugee campon one side, and the Jerusalem municipality on the other.[69]Most entrances and exits from the Bethlehem agglomeration to the rest of theWest Bankare currently subjected toIsraeli checkpointsand roadblocks. The level of access varies based on Israeli security directives. Travel for Bethlehem's Palestinian residents from the West Bank intoJerusalemis regulated by a permit-system.[162]Palestinians require a permit to enter the Jewish holy site ofRachel's Tomb.Israeli citizens are barred from entering Bethlehem and the nearby biblicalSolomon's Pools.[69]

Twin towns – sister cities

See also:List of twin towns and sister cities in the State of Palestine

Bethlehem istwinnedwith:[163][164][165]

See also

Notes

  1. ^The explanation of Bet-leḥem as the "House of (the god) Lahmu" is due to Otto Schröder, OLZ, 1915, pp. 294 f. This explanation is certainly correct [...][16]

References

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  9. ^abcCorpus inscriptionum Iudaeae/Palaestinae: a multi-lingual corpus of the inscriptions from Alexander to Muhammad.Vol. IV: Iudaea / Idumaea. Eran Lupu, Marfa Heimbach, Naomi Schneider, Hannah Cotton. Berlin:de Gruyter.2010. p. 635.ISBN978-3-11-022219-7.OCLC663773367.The name Bethlehem (Hebr. Bet Leḥem; LXX Βηθλέεμ; Βαιθλέεμ; Aramaic Bêt leḥem) combines the Hebrew wordsbayit"house" andleḥem"bread" and thus means "house of bread/food." Some claim that it is connected with the verb rootlḥm"to fight," whence it would mean "house of war/fighting." That seems less likely. It has also been suggested that there is a connection with the name of the Mesopotamian goddess, Laḫmu, the mother of Anšar (sky) and Kišar (earth) in the Babylonian creation myth, Enuma Elish, but this is generally rejected.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: others (link)
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Bibliography

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