Biogasis a gaseousrenewable energysource[1]produced from raw materials such asagricultural waste,manure,municipal waste,plant material,sewage,green waste,wastewater,andfood waste.Biogas is produced byanaerobic digestionwithanaerobic organismsormethanogensinside ananaerobic digester,biodigesteror abioreactor.[2]
The gas composition is primarily methane (CH
4) and carbon dioxide (CO
2) and may have small amounts ofhydrogen sulfide(H
2S), moisture andsiloxanes.The methane can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as afuel;it can be used infuel cellsand for heating purpose, such as in cooking. It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat.[3]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Biogas.jpg/220px-Biogas.jpg)
After removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide it can becompressedin the same way asnatural gasand used to powermotor vehicles.In the United Kingdom, for example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17% of vehicle fuel.[4]It qualifies for renewableenergy subsidiesin some parts of the world. Biogas can be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards, when it becomes bio-methane. Biogas is considered to be a renewable resource because its production-and-use cycle is continuous, and it generates no net carbon dioxide. From a carbon perspective, as much carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere in the growth of the primary bio-resource as is released, when the material is ultimately converted to energy.
Production
editBiogas is produced by microorganisms, such asmethanogensandsulfate-reducing bacteria,performing anaerobic respiration. Biogas can refer to gas produced naturally and industrially.
Natural
editIn soil, methane is produced in anaerobic environments by methanogens, but is mostly consumed in aerobic zones bymethanotrophs.Methane emissionsresult when the balance favors methanogens. Wetland soils are the main natural source of methane. Other sources include oceans, forest soils, termites, and wild ruminants.[5]
Industrial
editThe purpose of industrial biogas production is the collection of biomethane, usually for fuel. Industrial biogas is produced either;
- Aslandfill gas(LFG), which is produced by the decomposition ofbiodegradable wasteinside a landfill due to chemical reactions and microbes, or
- As digested gas, produced inside ananaerobic digester.
Bio-gas Plants
editAbiogas plantis the name often given to ananaerobic digesterthat treats farm wastes or energy crops. It can be produced using anaerobic digesters (air-tight tanks with different configurations). These plants can be fed with energy crops such as maizesilageorbiodegradable wastesincluding sewage sludge and food waste. During the process, the micro-organisms transform biomass waste into biogas (mainly methane and carbon dioxide) anddigestate.Higher quantities of biogas can be produced when the wastewater is co-digested with other residuals from the dairy industry, sugar industry, or brewery industry. For example, while mixing 90% of wastewater from beer factory with 10% cow whey, the production of biogas was increased by 2.5 times compared to the biogas produced by wastewater from the brewery only.[6]
Manufacturing of biogas from intentionally planted maize has been described as being unsustainable and harmful due to very concentrated, intense and soil eroding character of these plantations.[7]
Key processes
editThere are two key processes:mesophilicandthermophilicdigestion which is dependent on temperature. In experimental work atUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks,a 1000-litre digester usingpsychrophilesharvested from "mud from a frozen lake in Alaska" has produced 200–300 liters of methane per day, about 20–30% of the output from digesters in warmer climates.[8]
Dangers
editTheair pollutionproduced by biogas is similar to that ofnatural gasas whenmethane(a major constituent of biogas) is ignited for its usage as anenergysource,Carbon dioxideis made as a product which is agreenhouse gas( as described by this equation:CH4+ 2O2→CO2+ 2H2O). The content of toxichydrogen sulfidepresents additional risks and has been responsible for serious accidents.[9]Leaks of unburned methane are an additional risk, because methane is a potentgreenhouse gas.A facility may leak 2% of the methane.[10][11]
Biogas can beexplosivewhen mixed in the ratio of one part biogas to 8–20 parts air. Special safety precautions have to be taken for entering an empty biogas digester for maintenance work. It is important that a biogas system never has negative pressure as this could cause an explosion. Negative gas pressure can occur if too much gas is removed or leaked; Because of this biogas should not be used at pressures below one column inch of water, measured by a pressure gauge.[citation needed]
Frequent smell checks must be performed on a biogas system. If biogas is smelled anywhere windows and doors should be opened immediately. If there is a fire the gas should be shut off at the gate valve of the biogas system.[12]
Landfill gas
editLandfill gas is produced by wet organic waste decomposing under anaerobic conditions in a similar way to biogas.[13][14]
The waste is covered and mechanically compressed by the weight of the material that is deposited above. This material prevents oxygen exposure thus allowing anaerobic microbes to thrive. Biogas builds up and is slowly released into the atmosphere if the site has not been engineered to capture the gas. Landfill gas released in an uncontrolled way can be hazardous since it can become explosive when it escapes from the landfill and mixes with oxygen. The lowerexplosive limitis 5% methane and the upper is 15% methane.[15]
The methane in biogas is 28[16]times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Therefore, uncontained landfill gas, which escapes into the atmosphere may significantly contribute to theeffects of global warming.In addition,volatile organic compounds(VOCs) in landfill gas contribute to the formation ofphotochemical smog.
Technical
editBiochemical oxygen demand(BOD) is a measure of the amount of oxygen required by aerobic micro-organisms to decompose the organic matter in a sample of material being used in the biodigester as well as the BOD for the liquid discharge allows for the calculation of the daily energy output from a biodigester.
Another term related to biodigesters is effluent dirtiness, which tells how much organic material there is per unit of biogas source. Typical units for this measure are in mg BOD/litre. As an example, effluent dirtiness can range between 800 and 1200 mg BOD/litre in Panama.[citation needed]
From 1 kg of decommissioned kitchen bio-waste, 0.45 m3of biogas can be obtained. The price for collecting biological waste from households is approximately €70 per ton.[17]
Composition
editCompound | Formula | Percentage by volume |
---|---|---|
Methane | CH 4 |
50–80 |
Carbon dioxide | CO 2 |
15–50 |
Nitrogen | N 2 |
0–10 |
Hydrogen | H 2 |
0–1 |
Hydrogen sulfide | H 2S |
0–0.5 |
Oxygen | O 2 |
0–2.5 |
Source:www.kolumbus.fi, 2007[18] |
The composition of biogas varies depending upon the substrate composition, as well as the conditions within the anaerobic reactor (temperature, pH, and substrate concentration).[19]Landfill gastypically has methane concentrations around 50%. Advanced waste treatment technologies can produce biogas with 55–75% methane,[20]which for reactors with free liquids can be increased to 80–90% methane usingin-situgas purification techniques.[21]As produced, biogas contains water vapor. The fractional volume of water vapor is a function of biogas temperature; correction of measured gas volume for water vapour content and thermal expansion is easily done via simple mathematics[22]which yields the standardized volume of dry biogas.
For 1000 kg (wet weight) of input to a typical biodigester, total solids may be 30% of the wet weight whilevolatile suspended solidsmay be 90% of the total solids. Protein would be 20% of the volatile solids, carbohydrates would be 70% of the volatile solids, and finally fats would be 10% of the volatile solids.
Contaminants
editSulfur compounds
editToxic and foul smellingHydrogen sulfide(H
2S) is the most common contaminant in biogas, but other sulfur-containing compounds, such asthiolsmay be present. Left in the biogas stream, hydrogen sulfide is corrosive and when combusted yieldssulfur dioxide(SO
2) andsulfuric acid(H
2SO
4), also corrosive and environmentally hazardous compounds.[23]
Ammonia
editAmmonia(NH
3) is produced from organic compounds containing nitrogen, such as theamino acidsinproteins.If not separated from the biogas, combustion results inNO
xemissions.[23]
Siloxanes
editIn some cases, biogas containssiloxanes.They are formed from theanaerobic decompositionof materials commonly found in soaps and detergents. During combustion of biogas containing siloxanes,siliconis released and can combine with free oxygen or other elements in thecombustion gas.Deposits are formed containing mostlysilica(SiO
2) orsilicates(Si
xO
y) and can containcalcium,sulfur,zinc,phosphorus.Suchwhite mineraldeposits accumulate to a surface thickness of several millimeters and must be removed by chemical or mechanical means.
Practical and cost-effective technologies to remove siloxanes and other biogas contaminants are available.[24]
Benefits of manure derived biogas
editHigh levels ofmethaneare produced when manure is stored under anaerobic conditions. During storage and when manure has been applied to the land,nitrous oxideis also produced as a byproduct of the denitrification process. Nitrous oxide (N
2O) is 320 times more aggressive as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide[25]and methane 25 times more than carbon dioxide.[26]
By converting cow manure into methane biogas viaanaerobic digestion,the millions of cattle in the United States would be able to produce 100 billion kilowatt hours of electricity, enough to power millions of homes across the United States. One cow can produce enough manure in one day to generate 3 kilowatt hours of electricity.[27]Furthermore, by converting cattle manure into methane biogas instead of letting it decompose, global warming gases could be reduced by 99 million metric tons or 4%.[28]
Applications
editBiogas can be used for electricity production on sewage works,[29]in aCHPgas engine,where thewaste heatfrom the engine is conveniently used for heating the digester; cooking; space heating;water heating;and process heating. If compressed, it can replacecompressed natural gasfor use in vehicles, where it can fuel aninternal combustion engineorfuel cellsand is a much more effective displacer of carbon dioxide than the normal use in on-site CHP plants.[29]
Biogas upgrading
editRaw biogas produced from digestion is roughly 60% methane and 39%CO
2with trace elements ofH
2S:inadequate for use in machinery. The corrosive nature ofH
2Salone is enough to destroy the mechanisms.[23]
Methane in biogas can be concentrated via abiogas upgraderto the same standards as fossilnatural gas,which itself has to go through a cleaning process, and becomesbiomethane.If the local gas network allows, the producer of the biogas may use their distribution networks. Gas must be very clean to reach pipeline quality and must be of the correct composition for the distribution network to accept.Carbon dioxide,water,hydrogen sulfide,andparticulatesmust be removed if present.[23]
There are four main methods of upgrading: water washing, pressure swing absorption, selexol absorption, andamine gas treating.[30]In addition to these, the use of membrane separation technology for biogas upgrading is increasing, and there are already several plants operating in Europe and USA.[23][31]
The most prevalent method is water washing where high pressure gas flows into a column where the carbon dioxide and other trace elements are scrubbed by cascading water running counter-flow to the gas. This arrangement could deliver 98% methane with manufacturers guaranteeing maximum 2% methane loss in the system. It takes roughly between 3% and 6% of the total energy output in gas to run a biogas upgrading system.
Biogas gas-grid injection
editGas-grid injection is the injection of biogas into themethane grid(natural gas grid). Until the breakthrough ofmicro combined heat and powertwo-thirds of all the energy produced bybiogas power plantswas lost (as heat). Using the grid to transport the gas to consumers, the energy can be used foron-site generation,[32]resulting in a reduction of losses in the transportation of energy. Typical energy losses in natural gas transmission systems range from 1% to 2%; in electricity transmission they range from 5% to 8%.[33]
Before being injected in the gas grid, biogas passes a cleaning process, during which it is upgraded to natural gas quality. During the cleaning process trace components harmful to the gas grid and the final users are removed.[34]
Biogas in transport
editIf concentrated and compressed, it can be used in vehicle transportation. Compressed biogas is becoming widely used in Sweden, Switzerland, and Germany. A biogas-powered train, named Biogaståget Amanda (The Biogas Train Amanda), has been in service in Sweden since 2005.[35][36]Biogas powers automobiles. In 1974, a British documentary film titledSweet as a Nutdetailed the biogas production process from pig manure and showed how it fueled a custom-adapted combustion engine.[37][38]In 2007, an estimated 12,000 vehicles were being fueled with upgraded biogas worldwide, mostly in Europe.[39]
Biogas is part of the wet gas and condensing gas (or air) category that includes mist or fog in the gas stream. The mist or fog is predominately water vapor that condenses on the sides of pipes or stacks throughout the gas flow. Biogas environments include wastewater digesters, landfills, and animal feeding operations (covered livestock lagoons).
Ultrasonic flow meters are one of the few devices capable of measuring in a biogas atmosphere. Most of thermal flow meters are unable to provide reliable data because the moisture causes steady high flow readings and continuous flow spiking, although there are single-point insertion thermal mass flow meters capable of accurately monitoring biogas flows with minimal pressure drop. They can handle moisture variations that occur in the flow stream because of daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations, and account for the moisture in the flow stream to produce a dry gas value.
Biogas generated heat/electricity
editBiogas can be used in different types of internal combustion engines, such as theJenbacherorCaterpillargas engines.[40]Other internal combustion engines such as gas turbines are suitable for the conversion of biogas into both electricity and heat. The digestate is the remaining inorganic matter that was not transformed into biogas. It can be used as an agricultural fertiliser.
Biogas can be used as the fuel in the system of producing biogas from agricultural wastes andco-generatingheat and electricity in a combined heat and power (CHP) plant. Unlike the other green energy such as wind and solar, the biogas can be quickly accessed on demand. Theglobal warming potentialcan also be greatly reduced when using biogas as the fuel instead offossil fuel.[41]
However, theacidificationandeutrophicationpotentials produced by biogas are 25 and 12 times higher respectively thanfossil fuelalternatives. This impact can be reduced by using correct combination of feedstocks, covered storage for digesters and improved techniques for retrieving escaped material. Overall, the results still suggest that using biogas can lead to significant reduction in most impacts compared to fossil fuel alternative. The balance between environmental damage andgreen house gasemission should still be considered while implicating the system.[42]
Technological advancements
editProjects such as NANOCLEAN are nowadays developing new ways to produce biogas more efficiently, using iron oxidenanoparticlesin the processes of organic waste treatment. This process can triple the production of biogas.[43]
Biogas and Sanitation
editFaecal Sludgeis a product of onsite sanitation systems. Post collection and transportation, Faecal sludge can be treated with sewage in a conventional treatment plant, or otherwise it can be treated independently in a faecal sludge treatment plant. Faecal sludge can also be co-treated with organic solid waste incompostingor in ananaerobic digestionsystem.[44]Biogas can be generated through anaerobic digestion in the treatment of faecal sludge.
The appropriate management of excreta and its valorisation through the production of biogas from faecal sludge helps mitigate the effects of poorly managed excreta such as waterborne diseases and water and environmental pollution.[45]
The Resource Recovery and Reuse (RRR) ) is a subprogram of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) dedicated to applied research on the safe recovery of water, nutrients and energy from domestic and agro-industrial waste streams.[46]They believe using waste as energy would be good financially and would tackle sanitation, health and environmental issues.
Legislation
editEuropean Union
editThe European Union has legislation regarding waste management and landfill sites called theLandfill Directive.
Countries such as the United Kingdom and Germany now have legislation in force that provides farmers with long-term revenue and energy security.[47]
The EU mandates that internal combustion engines with biogas have ample gas pressure to optimize combustion, and within the European UnionATEXcentrifugalfanunits built in accordance with the European directive2014–34/EU(previously 94/9/EG) are obligatory. These centrifugal fan units, for exampleCombimac,Meidinger AG or Witt & Sohn AG are suitable for use inZone 1 and 2.
United States
editThe United States legislates against landfill gas as it containsVOCs.The United StatesClean Air ActandTitle 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations(CFR) requires landfill owners to estimate the quantity of non-methane organic compounds (NMOCs) emitted. If the estimated NMOC emissions exceeds 50 tonnes per year, the landfill owner is required to collect the gas and treat it to remove the entrained NMOCs. That usually means burning it. Because of the remoteness of landfill sites, it is sometimes not economically feasible to produce electricity from the gas.[48]
There are a variety of grants and loans the support the development of anaerobic digestor systems. TheRural Energy for American Programprovides loan financing and grant funding for biogas systems, as does theEnvironmental Quality Incentives Program,Conservation Stewardship Program,andConservation Loan Program.[49]
Global developments
editUnited States
editWith the many benefits of biogas, it is starting to become a popular source of energy and is starting to be used in the United States more.[50]In 2003, the United States consumed 43 TWh (147 trillion BTU) of energy from "landfill gas", about 0.6% of the total U.S. natural gas consumption.[39]Methane biogas derived from cow manure is being tested in the U.S. According to a 2008 study, collected by theScience and Childrenmagazine, methane biogas from cow manure would be sufficient to produce 100 billionkilowatt hoursenough to power millions of homes across America. Furthermore, methane biogas has been tested to prove that it can reduce 99 million metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions or about 4% of the greenhouse gases produced by the United States.[51]
The number of farm-based digesters increased by 21% in 2021 according to the American Biogas Council.[52]In Vermont biogas generated on dairy farms was included in the CVPS Cow Power program. The program was originally offered by Central Vermont Public Service Corporation as a voluntary tariff and now with a recent merger with Green Mountain Power is now the GMP Cow Power Program. Customers can elect to pay a premium on their electric bill, and that premium is passed directly to the farms in the program. InSheldon, Vermont,Green Mountain Dairy has provided renewable energy as part of the Cow Power program. It started when the brothers who own the farm, Bill and Brian Rowell, wanted to address some of the manure management challenges faced by dairy farms, including manure odor, and nutrient availability for the crops they need to grow to feed the animals. They installed an anaerobic digester to process the cow and milking center waste from their 950 cows to produce renewable energy, a bedding to replace sawdust, and a plant-friendly fertilizer. The energy and environmental attributes are sold to the GMP Cow Power program. On average, the system run by the Rowells produces enough electricity to power 300 to 350 other homes. The generator capacity is about 300 kilowatts.[53]
InHereford, Texas,cow manure is being used to power anethanol powerplant. By switching to methane biogas, the ethanol power plant has saved 1000 barrels of oil a day. Over all, the power plant has reduced transportation costs and will be opening many more jobs for future power plants that will rely on biogas.[54]
InOakley, Kansas,an ethanol plant considered to be one of the largest biogas facilities in North America is usingintegrated manure utilization system(IMUS) to produce heat for its boilers by utilizing feedlot manure, municipal organics and ethanol plant waste. At full capacity the plant is expected to replace 90% of the fossil fuel used in the manufacturing process of ethanol and methanol.[55][56]
In California, theSouthern California Gas Companyhas advocated for mixing biogas into existing natural gas pipelines. However, California state officials have taken the position that biogas is "better used in hard-to-electrify sectors of the economy-- like aviation, heavy industry and long-haul trucking".[57]
Europe
editThe level of development varies greatly in Europe. While countries such as Germany, Austria, Sweden and Italy are fairly advanced in their use of biogas, there is a vast potential for this renewable energy source in the rest of the continent, especially in Eastern Europe.MT-Energieis a German biogas technology company operating in the field ofrenewable energies.[58]Different legal frameworks, education schemes and the availability of technology are among the prime reasons behind this untapped potential.[59]Another challenge for the further progression of biogas has been negative public perception.[60]
In February 2009, the European Biogas Association (EBA) was founded in Brussels as a non-profit organisation to promote the deployment of sustainable biogas production and use in Europe. EBA's strategy defines three priorities: establish biogas as an important part of Europe's energy mix, promote source separation of household waste to increase the gas potential, and support the production of biomethane as vehicle fuel. In July 2013, it had 60 members from 24 countries across Europe.[61]
UK
editAs of September 2013[update],there are about 130 non-sewage biogas plants in the UK. Most are on-farm, and some larger facilities exist off-farm, which are taking food and consumer wastes.[62]
On 5 October 2010, biogas was injected into the UK gas grid for the first time. Sewage from over 30,000 Oxfordshire homes is sent to Didcotsewage treatmentworks, where it is treated in an anaerobic digestor to produce biogas, which is then cleaned to provide gas for approximately 200 homes.[63]
In 2015 the Green-Energy companyEcotricityannounced their plans to build three grid-injecting digesters.[64]
Italy
editIn Italy the biogas industry first started in 2008, thanks to the introduction of advantageous feed tariffs. They were later replaced by feed-in premiums and the preference was given to by products and farming waste and leading to stagnation in biogas production and derived heat and electricity since 2012.[65]As of September 2018[update],in Italy there are more than 200 biogas plants with a production of about 1.2 GW[66][67][68]
Germany
editGermany is Europe's biggest biogas producer[69]and the market leader in biogas technology.[70]In 2010 there were 5,905 biogas plants operating throughout the country: Lower Saxony, Bavaria, and the eastern federal states are the main regions.[71]Most of these plants are employed as power plants. Usually the biogas plants are directly connected with a CHP which produces electric power by burning the bio methane. The electrical power is then fed into the public power grid.[72]In 2010, the total installed electrical capacity of these power plants was 2,291 MW.[71]The electricity supply was approximately 12.8 TWh, which is 12.6% of the total generated renewable electricity.[73]
Biogas in Germany is primarily extracted by the co-fermentation of energy crops (called 'NawaRo', an abbreviation ofnachwachsende Rohstoffe,German for renewable resources) mixed with manure. The main crop used is corn. Organic waste and industrial and agricultural residues such as waste from the food industry are also used for biogas generation.[74]In this respect, biogas production in Germany differs significantly from the UK, where biogas generated from landfill sites is most common.[69]
Biogas production in Germany has developed rapidly over the last 20 years. The main reason is the legally created frameworks. Government support of renewable energy started in 1991 with the Electricity Feed-in Act (StrEG). This law guaranteed the producers of energy from renewable sources the feed into the public power grid, thus the power companies were forced to take all produced energy from independent private producers of green energy.[75]In 2000 the Electricity Feed-in Act was replaced by theRenewable Energy Sources Act(EEG). This law even guaranteed a fixed compensation for the produced electric power over 20 years. The amount of around 8¢/kWh gave farmers the opportunity to become energy suppliers and gain a further source of income.[74]
The German agricultural biogas production was given a further push in 2004 by implementing the so-called NawaRo-Bonus. This is a special payment given for the use of renewable resources, that is, energy crops.[76]In 2007 the German government stressed its intention to invest further effort and support in improving the renewable energy supply to provide an answer on growing climate challenges and increasing oil prices by the 'Integrated Climate and Energy Programme'.
This continual trend of renewable energy promotion induces a number of challenges facing the management and organisation of renewable energy supply that has also several impacts on the biogas production.[77]The first challenge to be noticed is the high area-consuming of the biogas electric power supply. In 2011 energy crops for biogas production consumed an area of circa 800,000 ha in Germany.[78]This high demand of agricultural areas generates new competitions with the food industries that did not exist hitherto. Moreover, new industries and markets were created in predominately rural regions entailing different new players with an economic, political and civil background. Their influence and acting has to be governed to gain all advantages this new source of energy is offering. Finally biogas will furthermore play an important role in the German renewable energy supply if good governance is focused.[77]
Developing countries
editDomestic biogas plants convert livestock manure and night soil into biogas and slurry, the fermented manure. This technology is feasible for small-holders with livestock producing 50 kg manure per day, an equivalent of about 6 pigs or 3 cows. This manure has to be collectable to mix it with water and feed it into the plant. Toilets can be connected. Another precondition is the temperature that affects the fermentation process. With an optimum at 36 °C the technology especially applies for those living in a (sub) tropical climate. This makes the technology for small holders in developing countries often suitable.[79]
Depending on size and location, a typical brick made fixed dome biogas plant can be installed at the yard of a rural household with the investment between US$300 to $500 in Asian countries and up to $1400 in the African context.[80]A high quality biogas plant needs minimum maintenance costs and can produce gas for at least 15–20 years without major problems and re-investments. For the user, biogas providesclean cookingenergy, reducesindoor air pollution,and reduces the time needed for traditional biomass collection, especially for women and children. The slurry is a clean organic fertilizer that potentially increases agricultural productivity.[79]In developing countries, it was also determined that the use of biogas leads to a 20% reduction in GHG emissions compared with GHG emissions due to firewood. Moreover, GHG emissions of 384.1 kg CO2-eq·y−1 per animal could be prevented.[81]
Energy is an important part of modern society and can serve as one of the most important indicators of socio-economic development. As much as there have been advancements in technology, even so, some three billion people, primarily in the rural areas of developing countries, continue to access their energy needs for cooking through traditional means by burning biomass resources like firewood, crop residues and animal dung in crude traditional stoves.[82]
Domestic biogas technology is a proven and established technology in many parts of the world, especially Asia.[83]Several countries in this region have embarked on large-scale programmes on domestic biogas, such as China[84]and India.
TheNetherlands Development Organisation,SNV,[85]supports national programmes on domestic biogas that aim to establish commercial-viable domestic biogas sectors in which local companies market, install and service biogas plants for households. In Asia,SNVis working in Nepal,[86]Vietnam,[87][88]Bangladesh,[89]Bhutan, Cambodia,[89]Lao PDR,[90]Pakistan[91]and Indonesia,[92]and in Africa; Rwanda,[93]Senegal, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia,[94]Tanzania,[95]Uganda, Kenya,[96]Benin and Cameroon.
In South Africa a prebuilt Biogas system is manufactured and sold. One key feature is that installation requires less skill and is quicker to install as the digester tank is premade plastic.[97]
India
editBiogas in India[98]has been traditionally based on dairy manure as feed stock and these "gobar" gas plants have been in operation for a long period of time, especially in rural India. In the last 2–3 decades, research organisations with a focus on rural energy security have enhanced the design of the systems resulting in newer efficient low cost designs such as the Deenabandhu model.
The Deenabandhu Model is a new biogas-production model popular in India. (Deenabandhumeans "friend of the helpless".) The unit usually has a capacity of 2 to 3 cubic metres. It is constructed using bricks or by aferrocementmixture. In India, the brick model costs slightly more than the ferrocement model; however, India's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy offers some subsidy per model constructed.
Biogas which is mainly methane/natural gas can also be used for generating protein rich cattle, poultry and fish feed in villages economically by cultivatingMethylococcus capsulatusbacteria culture with tiny land and water foot print.[99][100][101]The carbon dioxide gas produced as by product from these plants can be put to use in cheaper production ofalgae oilorspirulinafromalgacultureparticularly in tropical countries like India which can displace the prime position of crude oil in near future.[102][103]Union government of India is implementing many schemes to utilise productively the agro waste or biomass in rural areas to uplift rural economy and job potential.[104][105]With these plants, the non-edible biomass or waste of edible biomass is converted in to high value products without any water pollution orgreen house gas(GHG) emissions.[106]
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is a key source of cooking fuel in urban India and its prices have been increasing along with the global fuel prices. Also the heavy subsidies provided by the successive governments in promoting LPG as a domestic cooking fuel has become a financial burden renewing the focus on biogas as a cooking fuel alternative in urban establishments. This has led to the development of prefabricated digester for modular deployments as compared to RCC and cement structures which take a longer duration to construct. Renewed focus on process technology like the Biourja process model[107]has enhanced the stature of medium and large scale anaerobic digester in India as a potential alternative to LPG as primary cooking fuel.
In India, Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh biogas produced from the anaerobic digestion ofmanurein small-scale digestion facilities is called gobar gas; it is estimated that such facilities exist in over 2 million households in India, 50,000 in Bangladesh and thousands in Pakistan, particularly North Punjab, due to the thriving population of livestock. The digester is an airtight circular pit made of concrete with a pipe connection. The manure is directed to the pit, usually straight from the cattle shed. The pit is filled with a required quantity ofwastewater.The gas pipe is connected to the kitchen fireplace through control valves. The combustion of this biogas has very little odour or smoke. Owing to simplicity in implementation and use of cheap raw materials in villages, it is one of the most environmentally sound energy sources for rural needs. One type of these system is theSintexDigester. Some designs usevermicultureto further enhance the slurry produced by the biogas plant for use as compost.[108]
In Pakistan, the Rural Support Programmes Network is running the Pakistan Domestic Biogas Programme[109]which has installed 5,360 biogas plants[110]and has trained in excess of 200 masons on the technology and aims to develop the Biogas Sector in Pakistan.
In Nepal, the government provides subsidies to build biogas plant at home.
China
editAs of at least 2023, China is both the world's largest producer and largest consumer of household biogas.[111]: 172
The Chinese have experimented with the applications of biogas since 1958. Around 1970, China had installed 6,000,000 digesters in an effort to makeagriculturemore efficient. During the last few years, technology has met high growth rates. This seems to be the earliest developments in generating biogas from agricultural waste.[112]
The rural biogas construction in China has shown an increased development trend. The exponential growth of energy supply caused by rapid economic development and severehazecondition in China have led biogas to become the better eco-friendly energy for the rural areas. InQing county,HebeiProvince, the technology of using cropstrawas a main material to generate biogas is currently developing.[113]
China had 26.5 million biogas plants, with an output of 10.5 billion cubic meter biogas until 2007. The annual biogas output has increased to 248 billion cubic meter in 2010.[114]The Chinese government had supported and funded rural biogas projects.[115]As of 2023, more than 30 million rural Chinese households use biogas digesters.[111]: 172
During the winter, the biogas production in northern regions of China is lower. This is caused by the lack of heat control technology for digesters thus the co-digestion of different feedstock failed to complete in the cold environment.[116]
Zambia
editLusaka, the capital city of Zambia, has two million inhabitants with over half of the population residing in peri-urban areas. The majority of this population usepit latrinesas toilets generating approximately 22,680 tons of fecal sludge per annum. This sludge is inadequately managed: Over 60% of the generatedfaecal sludgeremains within the residential environment thereby compromising both the environment and public health.[117]
In the face of research work and implementation of biogas having started as early as in the 1980s, Zambia is lagging behind in the adoption and use of biogas in the sub-Saharan Africa. Animal manure and crop residues are required for the provision of energy for cooking and lighting. Inadequate funding, absence of policy, regulatory framework and strategies on biogas, unfavorable investor monetary policy, inadequate expertise, lack of awareness of the benefits of biogas technology among leaders, financial institutions and locals, resistance to change due cultural and traditions of the locals, high installation and maintenance costs of biogas digesters, inadequate research and development, improper management and lack of monitoring of installed digesters, complexity of the carbon market, lack of incentives and social equity are among the challenges that have impeded the acquiring and sustainable implementation of domestic biogas production in Zambia.[118]
Associations
edit- World Biogas Association (https://www.worldbiogasassociation.org/)
- American Biogas Council (https://americanbiogascouncil.org/)
- Canadian Biogas Association (https://www.biogasassociation.ca/)
- European Biogas Association[119]
- German Biogas Association[120]
- Indian Biogas Association[121]
Society and culture
editIn the 1985 Australian filmMad Max Beyond Thunderdomethe post-apocalyptic settlement Barter town is powered by a central biogas system based upon a piggery. As well as providing electricity, methane is used to power Barter's vehicles.
"Cow Town",[clarification needed]written in the early 1940s, discusses the travails of a city vastly built on cow manure and the hardships brought upon by the resulting methane biogas. Carter McCormick, an engineer from a town outside the city, is sent in to figure out a way to utilize this gas to help power, rather than suffocate, the city.[citation needed]
Contemporary biogas production provides new opportunities for skilled employment, drawing on the development of new technologies.[122]
See also
edit- Anaerobic digestion– Processes by which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen
- Biochemical oxygen demand– Oxygen needed to remove organics from water
- Biodegradability– Decomposition by living organisms
- Bioenergy– Renewable energy made from biomass
- Biofuel– Type of biological fuel
- Biohydrogen– Hydrogen that is produced biologically
- Hydrogen economy– Using hydrogen to decarbonize more sectors
- Landfill gas monitoring– Process of monitoring gas from landfills.
- Methanation– Conversion of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (COx) to methane (CH4)
- MSW/LFG(municipal solid waste and landfill gas)
- Natural gas– Gaseous fossil fuel
- Renewable energy– Energy collected from renewable resources
- Renewable natural gas– Methane enriched biogas that can easily be upgraded
- Relative cost of electricity generated by different sources– Comparison of costs of different electricity generation sources
- Thermal hydrolysis
- Waste management– Activities and actions required to manage waste from its source to its final disposal
- European Biomass Association– European bioenergy organization
References
edit- ^National Non-Food Crops Centre."NNFCC Renewable Fuels and Energy Factsheet: Anaerobic Digestion",Retrieved on 2011-02-16
- ^Webdesign, Insyde."How does biogas work?".www.simgas.com.Archived fromthe originalon 10 May 2018.Retrieved16 May2018.
- ^"Biogas & Engines".clarke-energy.com.Retrieved21 November2011.
- ^"Biomethane fueled vehicles the carbon neutral option".Claverton Energy Conference Bath, UK. 24 October 2009. Archived fromthe originalon 31 May 2023.
- ^Le Mer, Jean; Roger, Pierre (January 2001). "Production, oxidation, emission and consumption of methane by soils: A review".European Journal of Soil Biology.37(1): 25–50.Bibcode:2001EJSB...37...25L.doi:10.1016/S1164-5563(01)01067-6.S2CID62815957.
- ^Appels, Lise; Baeyens, Jan; Degrève, Jan; Dewil, Raf (2008)."Principles and potential of the anaerobic digestion of waste-activated sludge".Progress in Energy and Combustion Science.34(6): 755–781.Bibcode:2008PECS...34..755A.doi:10.1016/j.pecs.2008.06.002.ISSN0360-1285.S2CID95588169.[permanent dead link]
- ^"How a false solution to climate change is damaging the natural world | George Monbiot".the Guardian.14 March 2014.Retrieved5 October2021.
- ^Gupta, Sujata (3 November 2010)."Cold climates no bar to biogas production".New Scientist.London: Sunita Harrington. p. 14.
- ^Hedlund, FH; Madsen, M (2018)."Incomplete understanding of biogas chemical hazards – Serious gas poisoning accident while unloading food waste at biogas plant"(PDF).Journal of Chemical Health & Safety.25(6): 13–21.doi:10.1016/j.jchas.2018.05.004.S2CID67849856.
- ^Reinelt, Torsten; Liebetrau, Jan (January 2020)."Monitoring and Mitigation of Methane Emissions from Pressure Relief Valves of a Biogas Plant".Chemical Engineering & Technology.43(1): 7–18.doi:10.1002/ceat.201900180.S2CID208716124.
- ^Michael Fredenslund, Anders; Gudmundsson, Einar; Maria Falk, Julie; Scheutz, Charlotte (February 2023)."The Danish national effort to minimise methane emissions from biogas plants".Waste Management.157:321–329.Bibcode:2023WaMan.157..321M.doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2022.12.035.PMID36592586.S2CID254174784.
- ^"Biogas Problems".Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"Biogas – Bioenergy Association of New Zealand (BANZ)".Bioenergy.org.nz. Archived fromthe originalon 25 January 2010.Retrieved21 February2010.
- ^LFG energy projectsArchived3 January 2009 at theWayback Machine
- ^Safety Page, Beginners Guide to BiogasArchived17 February 2015 at theWayback Machine,www.adelaide.edu.au/biogas. Retrieved 22.10.07.
- ^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 12 November 2018.Retrieved22 December2018.
{{cite web}}
:CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^Obrecht, Matevz; Denac, Matjaz (2011)."Biogas – a sustainable energy source: new measures and possibilities for SLovenia"(PDF).Journal of Energy Technology(5): 11–24.
- ^Basic Information on BiogasArchived6 January 2010 at theWayback Machine,www.kolumbus.fi. Retrieved 2.11.07.
- ^Hafner, Sasha (2017)."Predicting methane and biogas production with the biogas package"(PDF).CRAN.
- ^"Juniper".Archived fromthe originalon 30 April 2015.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^Richards, B.; Herndon, F. G.; Jewell, W. J.; Cummings, R. J.; White, T. E. (1994). "In situ methane enrichment in methanogenic energy crop digesters".Biomass and Bioenergy.6(4): 275–282.Bibcode:1994BmBe....6..275R.doi:10.1016/0961-9534(94)90067-1.hdl:1813/60790.
- ^Richards, B.; Cummings, R.; White, T.; Jewell, W. (1991). "Methods for kinetic analysis of methane fermentation in high solids biomass digesters".Biomass and Bioenergy.1(2): 65–73.Bibcode:1991BmBe....1...65R.doi:10.1016/0961-9534(91)90028-B.hdl:1813/60787.
- ^abcdeAbatzoglou, Nicolas; Boivin, Steve (2009). "A review of biogas purification processes".Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining.3(1): 42–71.doi:10.1002/bbb.117.ISSN1932-104X.S2CID84907789.
- ^Tower, P.; Wetzel, J.; Lombard, X. (March 2006)."New Landfill Gas Treatment Technology Dramatically Lowers Energy Production Costs".Applied Filter Technology. Archived fromthe originalon 2 January 2016.Retrieved30 April2009.(broken link)
- ^"Increased Greenhouse Gas Emissions"Archived17 January 2016 at theWayback Machine,Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
- ^Overview of Greenhouse Gases, Methane Emissions.Climate Change, United States Environmental Protection Agency, 11 December 2015.
- ^State Energy Conservation Office (Texas). "Biomass Energy: Manure for Fuel." State Energy Conservation Office (Texas). State of Texas, 23 April 2009. Web. 3 October 2009.
- ^Webber, Michael E and Amanda D Cuellar. "Cow Power. In the News: Short News Items of Interest to the Scientific Community." Science and Children os 46.1 (2008): 13. Gale. Web. 1 October 2009 in United States.
- ^abAdministrator."Biogas CHP – Alfagy – Profitable Greener Energy via CHP, Cogen and Biomass Boiler using Wood, Biogas, Natural Gas, Biodiesel, Vegetable Oil, Syngas and Straw".Archived fromthe originalon 30 April 2015.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"Nyheter – SGC".Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 4 December 2014.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^Petersson A., Wellinger A. (2009). Biogas upgrading technologies – developments and innovations. IEA Bioenergy Task 37Archived29 November 2014 at theWayback Machine
- ^"Biogas Flows Through Germany's Grid Big Time – Renewable Energy News Article".14 March 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 14 March 2012.Retrieved17 June2016.
- ^"energy loss, transmission loss".Archived fromthe originalon 22 September 2018.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"Adding gas from biomass to the gas grid"(PDF).Swedish Gas Center.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 20 October 2017.Retrieved20 October2017.
- ^Biogas train in SwedenArchived29 September 2011 at theWayback Machine
- ^Friendly fuel trains (30 October 2005)New Straits Times,p. F17.
- ^"Bates Car – Sweet As a Nut (1975)".BFI.Archived fromthe originalon 23 July 2013.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^National Film Board of Canada."Bate's Car: Sweet as a Nut".NFB.ca.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^abWhat is biogas?,U.S. Department of Energy, 13 April 2010
- ^State Energy Conservation Office (Texas)."Biomass Energy: Manure for Fuel."Archived23 October 2012 at theWayback Machine,23 April 2009. Web. 3 October 2009.
- ^Comparison of energy systems using life cycle assessment.World Energy Council. 2004.ISBN0946121168.OCLC59190792.
- ^Whiting, Andrew; Azapagic, Adisa (2014)."Life cycle environmental impacts of generating electricity and heat from biogas produced by anaerobic digestion".Energy.70:181–193.Bibcode:2014Ene....70..181W.doi:10.1016/j.energy.2014.03.103.ISSN0360-5442.
- ^"Creating BIOGAS+: a new technology to improve the efficiency and profitability in the treatment of biowaste".SIOR. Social Impact Open Repository.Archived fromthe originalon 5 September 2017.Retrieved5 September2017.
- ^Semiyaga, Swaib; Okure, Mackay A. E.; Niwagaba, Charles B.; Katukiza, Alex Y.; Kansiime, Frank (1 November 2015)."Decentralized options for faecal sludge management in urban slum areas of Sub-Saharan Africa: A review of technologies, practices and end-uses".Resources, Conservation and Recycling.104:109–119.Bibcode:2015RCR...104..109S.doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.09.001.ISSN0921-3449.
- ^Hidenori Harada; Linda Strande; Shigeo Fujii (2016). "Challenges and Opportunities of Faecal Sludge Management for Global Sanitation".Kaisei Publishing, Tokyo:81–100.
- ^Otoo, M.; Drechsel, P.; Danso, G.; Gebrezgabher, S.; Rao, K.; Madurangi, G. (2016). Testing the implementation potential of resource recovery and reuse business models: from baseline surveys to feasibility studies and business plans (Report). International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE).doi:10.5337/2016.206.
- ^"CHP | Combined Heat and Power | Cogeneration | Wood Biomass Gasified Co-generation | Energy Efficiency | Electricity Generation".Alfagy.com. Archived fromthe originalon 7 July 2011.Retrieved21 February2010.
- ^US EPA, OAR (15 April 2016)."Basic Information about Landfill Gas".www.epa.gov.Retrieved17 June2022.
- ^Lazenby, Ruthie (15 August 2022)."Rethinking Manure Biogas: Policy Considerations to Promote Equity and Protect the Climate and Environment"(PDF).Retrieved19 October2022.
- ^"Inflation Reduction Act Gives a Boost to the Biogas Sector".The National Law Review.Retrieved19 October2022.
- ^Cuellar, Amanda D and Michael E Webber (2008)."Cow power: the energy and emissions benefits of converting manure to biogas".Environ. Res. Lett.3(3): 034002.Bibcode:2008ERL.....3c4002C.doi:10.1088/1748-9326/3/3/034002.hdl:2152/20290.
- ^Moran, Barbara (9 November 2022)."Massachusetts companies are turning to 'anaerobic digesters' to dispose of food waste".NPR News.Retrieved11 November2022.
- ^Zezima, Katie. "Electricity From What Cows Leave Behind."The New York Times,23 September 2008, natl. ed.: SPG9. Web. 1 October 2009.
- ^State Energy Conservation Office (Texas). "Biomass Energy: Manure for FuelArchived23 October 2012 at theWayback Machine."State Energy Conservation Office (Texas). State of Texas, 23 April 2009. Web. 3 October 2009.
- ^Trash-to-energy trend boosts anaerobic digesters[1]."
- ^Western Plains Energy finishing up North America's largest biogas digester[2]."
- ^McKenna, Phil (13 November 2019)."Fearing for Its Future, a Big Utility Pushes 'Renewable Gas,' Urges Cities to Reject Electrification".InsideClimate News.Archived fromthe originalon 16 November 2019.Retrieved16 November2019.
- ^"Renewables - Made in Germany".German Energy Agency. Archived fromthe originalon 6 July 2011.Retrieved13 April2011.
- ^"About SEBE".Archived fromthe originalon 28 November 2014.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"FNR: Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e. V."(PDF).Retrieved17 June2016.[permanent dead link]
- ^"European Biogas Association".Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^The Official Information Portal on AD'Biogas Plant Map'
- ^Sewage project sends first ever renewable gas to gridThames WaterArchived9 December 2010 at theWayback Machine
- ^"Ecotricity announces third Green Gasmill".www.ecotricity.co.uk.Retrieved2 January2024.
- ^Eyl-Mazzega, Mark Antione; Mathieu, Carole (27 October 2020)."Biogas and Biomethane in Europe: Lessons from Denmark, Italy and Germany"(PDF).Études de l'Ifri.[permanent dead link]
- ^ANSA Ambiente & EnergiaInstalled biogas power in Italy
- ^AuCo Solutions biogas softwareBiogas software solutionArchived25 September 2018 at theWayback Machine
- ^Snam IES BiogasBiogas Plant in ItalyArchived25 September 2018 at theWayback Machine
- ^ab"European Biogas Barometer"(PDF).EurObserv'ER.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 25 April 2012.Retrieved7 November2011.
- ^"Biogas".BMU. Archived fromthe originalon 29 January 2015.Retrieved7 November2011.
- ^ab"Biogas Segments Statistics 2010"(PDF).Fachverband Biogas e.V.Retrieved5 November2011.[permanent dead link]
- ^"Biomass for Power Generation and CHP"(PDF).IEA. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 3 November 2011.Retrieved7 November2011.
- ^"Renewable Energy Sources".6 September 2014.Retrieved6 June2018.
- ^abWieland, P. (2003). "Production and Energetic Use of Biogas from Energy Crops and Wastes in Germany".Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology.109(1–3): 263–274.doi:10.1385/abab:109:1-3:263.PMID12794299.S2CID9468552.
- ^"Erneuerbare Energien in Deutschland. Rückblick und Stand des Innovationsgeschehens"(PDF).IfnE et al. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 6 April 2012.Retrieved5 November2011.
- ^Wieland, P. (2006). "Biomass Digestion in Agriculture: A Successful Pathway for the Energy Production and Waste Treatment in Germany".Engineering in Life Sciences.6(3). Engineering in Life Science: 302–309.Bibcode:2006EngLS...6..302W.doi:10.1002/elsc.200620128.S2CID54685767.
- ^abKanning, H.; et al. (2009)."Erneuerbare Energien – Räumliche Dimensionen, neue Akteurslandschaften und planerische (Mit)Gestaltungspotenziale am Beispiel des Biogaspfades".Raumforschung und Raumordnung.67(2): 142–156.doi:10.1007/BF03185702.
- ^"Cultivation of renewable Resources in Germany".FNR.Retrieved5 November2011.[permanent dead link]
- ^abRoubík, Hynek; Mazancová, Jana; Banout, Jan; Verner, Vladimír (20 January 2016). "Addressing problems at small-scale biogas plants: a case study from central Vietnam".Journal of Cleaner Production.112(Part 4): 2784–2792.Bibcode:2016JCPro.112.2784R.doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.114.
- ^Ghimire, Prakash C. (1 January 2013). "SNV supported domestic biogas programmes in Asia and Africa".Renewable Energy.Selected papers from World Renewable Energy Congress – XI.49:90–94.Bibcode:2013REne...49...90G.doi:10.1016/j.renene.2012.01.058.
- ^Roubík, Hynek; Barrera, Sergio; Van Dung, Dinh; Phung, Le Dinh; Mazancová, Jana (10 October 2020)."Emission reduction potential of household biogas plants in developing countries: The case of central Vietnam".Journal of Cleaner Production.270:122257.Bibcode:2020JCPro.27022257R.doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122257.ISSN0959-6526.
- ^Surendra, K. C.; Takara, Devin; Hashimoto, Andrew G.; Khanal, Samir Kumar (1 March 2014)."Biogas as a sustainable energy source for developing countries: Opportunities and challenges".Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.31:846–859.Bibcode:2014RSERv..31..846S.doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.12.015.ISSN1364-0321.
- ^"SNV World".Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 5 October 2018.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"China – Biogas".Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"Renewable energy".Archived fromthe originalon 27 February 2012.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"Biogas Sector Partnership-Nepal".Bspnepal.org.np.Retrieved21 February2010.
- ^Roubík, H.; Mazancová, J.; Phung, L.D.; Banout, J. (2018)."Current approach to manure management for small-scale Southeast Asian farmers - Using Vietnamese biogas and non-biogas farms as an example".Renewable Energy.115(115): 362–370.Bibcode:2018REne..115..362R.doi:10.1016/j.renene.2017.08.068.Retrieved20 April2023.
- ^"Dự án chương trình khí sinh học cho ngành chăn nuôi Việt Nam".Biogas.org.vn. Archived fromthe originalon 25 October 2004.Retrieved21 February2010.
- ^abhttp://www.idcol.org(click 'Projects')
- ^"Home".Biogaslao.org. Archived fromthe originalon 10 November 2010.Retrieved21 February2010.
- ^"SNV World".Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 6 October 2018.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^Indonesia Domestic Biogas ProgrammeArchived28 July 2011 at theWayback Machine
- ^"Renewable Energy".Snvworld.org. Archived fromthe originalon 3 January 2015.Retrieved3 January2015.
- ^"Renewable energy".Snvworld.org. Archived fromthe originalon 3 January 2015.Retrieved3 January2015.
- ^SNV Tanzania Domestic Biogas ProgrammeArchived28 July 2011 at theWayback Machine
- ^Biogas First in Kenya for Clarke Energy and Tropical PowerAccessed 11 September 2013
- ^"Renewable Energy Solutions – Living Lightly".Renewable Energy Solutions.Archived fromthe originalon 2 May 2015.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"GPS Renewables – Waste management through biogas".GPS Renewables.Archived fromthe originalon 18 May 2015.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"BioProtein Production"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 10 May 2017.Retrieved31 January2018.
- ^Le Page, Michael."Food made from natural gas will soon feed farm animals – and us".New Scientist.Retrieved31 January2018.
- ^"New venture selects Cargill's Tennessee site to produce Calysta FeedKind Protein".Retrieved31 January2018.
- ^"Algenol and Reliance launch algae fuels demonstration project in India".Retrieved29 May2017.
- ^"ExxonMobil Announces Breakthrough in Renewable Energy".Retrieved20 June2017.
- ^"Indrapratha Gas, Mahindra & Mahindra join hands to stop stubble burning".Retrieved20 February2018.
- ^"Modi govt plans Gobar-Dhan scheme to convert cattle dung into energy".Retrieved22 February2018.
- ^"Assessment of environmental impact of FeedKind protein"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2 August 2019.Retrieved20 June2017.
- ^"GPS Renewables – Monitoring Methodology".GPS Renewables.Archived fromthe originalon 10 May 2015.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"Biogas plants provide cooking and fertiliser".Ashden Awards, sustainable and renewable energy in the UK and developing world.Archived fromthe originalon 27 September 2011.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"PAK-ENERGY SOLUTION".Archived fromthe originalon 24 May 2015.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"5,360 bio-gas plants installed in 12 districts".Business Recorder.27 December 2014. Archived fromthe originalon 2 April 2015.Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^abSantos, Gonçalo (2021).Chinese Village Life Today: Building Families in an Age of Transition.Seattle:University of Washington Press.ISBN978-0-295-74738-5.
- ^Biogas in China. Retrieved 27 October 2016
- ^Hu, Die (2015). "Hebei Province Qing County Straw Partnerships Biogas Application and Promotion Research".Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on Mechatronics, Electronic, Industrial and Control Engineering.Paris, France: Atlantis Press.doi:10.2991/meic-15.2015.260.ISBN9789462520622.
- ^Deng, Yanfei; Xu, Jiuping; Liu, Ying; Mancl, Karen (2014). "Biogas as a sustainable energy source in China: Regional development strategy application and decision making".Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.35:294–303.Bibcode:2014RSERv..35..294D.doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.04.031.ISSN1364-0321.
- ^Chen, Yu; Yang, Gaihe; Sweeney, Sandra; Feng, Yongzhong (2010). "Household biogas use in rural China: A study of opportunities and constraints".Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.14(1): 545–549.Bibcode:2010RSERv..14..545C.doi:10.1016/j.rser.2009.07.019.ISSN1364-0321.S2CID154461345.
- ^He, Pin Jing (2010). "Anaerobic digestion: An intriguing long history in China".Waste Management.30(4): 549–550.Bibcode:2010WaMan..30..549H.doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2010.01.002.ISSN0956-053X.PMID20089392.
- ^Tembo, J.M.; Nyirenda, E.; Nyambe, I. (2017)."Enhancing faecal sludge management in peri-urban areas of Lusaka through faecal sludge valorisation: challenges and opportunities".IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science.60(1): 012025.Bibcode:2017E&ES...60a2025T.doi:10.1088/1755-1315/60/1/012025.
- ^Shane, Agabu; Gheewala, Shabbir H (2020)."Potential, Barriers and Prospects of Biogas Production in Zambia"(PDF).Journal of Sustainable Energy & Environment.6 (2015) 21-27.
- ^"European Biogas Association".Retrieved15 May2017.
- ^"German Biogas Association".Retrieved15 May2017.
- ^"Biogas-india – Home".Retrieved15 May2015.
- ^"Generating new employment opportunities [Social Impact]".SIOR. Social Impact Open Repository.Archived fromthe originalon 5 September 2017.
Further reading
edit- Updated Guidebook on Biogas Development.United Nations, New York, (1984) Energy Resources Development Series No. 27. p. 178, 30 cm.
- Book: Biogas from Waste and Renewable Resources. WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, (2008) Dieter Deublein and Angelika Steinhauser
- A Comparison between Shale Gas in China and Unconventional Fuel Development in the United States: Health, Water and Environmental Risksby Paolo Farah and Riccardo Tremolada. This is a paper presented at the Colloquium on Environmental Scholarship 2013 hosted by Vermont Law School (11 October 2013)
- Marchaim, Uri (1992).Biogas processes for sustainable development.FAO.ISBN978-92-5-103126-1.
- Woodhead Publishing Series. (2013).The Biogas Handbook: Science, Production and Applications.ISBN978-0857094988
- Lazenby, Ruthie (15 August 2022)."Rethinking Manure Biogas: Policy Considerations to Promote Equity and Protect the Climate and Environment"(PDF). Retrieved 19 October 2022.