Wikipedia

Bluefin trevally

Thebluefin trevally(Caranx melampygus), also known as thebluefin jack,bluefin kingfish,bluefinned crevalle,blue ulua,omilu,andspotted trevally,is aspeciesof large, widely distributedmarinefishclassified in the jackfamily,Carangidae.The bluefin trevally is distributed throughout thetropicalwaters of theIndianandPacific Oceans,ranging fromEastern Africain the west toCentral Americain the east, includingJapanin the north andAustraliain the south. The species grows to a maximum known length of 117 centimetres (46 in) and a weight of 43.5 kilograms (96 lb), however is rare above 80 centimetres (31 in). Bluefin trevally are easily recognised by theirelectric bluefins, tapered snout and numerous blue and black spots on their sides. Juveniles lack these obvious colours, and must be identified by more detailed anatomical features such asfinray andscutecounts. The bluefin trevally inhabits bothinshoreenvironments such as bays,lagoonsand shallowreefs,as well as deeper offshore reefs,atollsand bomboras. Juveniles prefer shallower, protected waters, even enteringestuariesfor short periods in some locations.

Bluefin trevally
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Carangiformes
Suborder: Carangoidei
Family: Carangidae
Genus: Caranx
Species:
C. melampygus
Binomial name
Caranx melampygus
Approximate range of the bluefin trevally
Synonyms[2]
  • Carangichthys melampygus(Cuvier, 1833)
  • Carangus melampygus(Cuvier, 1833)
  • Caranx stellatusEydoux&Souleyet,1850
  • Caranx valencienneiCastelnau,1873
  • Caranx medusicolaJordan&Starks,1895

The bluefin trevally is a strongpredatoryfish, with a diet dominated by fish and supplemented bycephalopodsandcrustaceansas an adult. Juveniles consume a higher amount of small crustaceans, but transfer to a more fish based diet as they grow. The species displays a wide array of hunting techniques ranging from aggressive midwater attacks, reefambushesandforaginginteractions with other larger species, snapping up any prey items missed by the larger animal. The bluefin trevally reproduces at different periods throughout its range, and reachessexual maturityat 30–40 cm in length and around 2 years of age. It is a multiplespawner,capable of reproducing up to 8 times per year, releasing up to 6 million eggs per year in captivity. Growth is well studied, with the fish reaching 194 mm in its first year, 340 mm in the second and 456 mm in the third year. The bluefin trevally is a popular target for bothcommercialandrecreational fishermen.Commercial fisheries record up to 50tonnesof the species taken per year in the west Indian Ocean, and around 700lbsper year inHawaii.The rapid decimation of the Hawaiian population due tooverfishinghas led to increased research in theaquaculturepotential of the species, with spawning achieved in captivity. Despite its popularity as atable fish,many cases ofciguaterapoisoning have been reported from the species.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

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The bluefin trevally is classified within the genusCaranx,one of a number of groups known as the jacks or trevallies.Caranxitself is part of the larger jack and horse mackerel familyCarangidae,which in turn is part of theorderCarangiformes.[3]

The species was firstscientifically describedby the famed FrenchnaturalistGeorges Cuvierin 1833 based on specimens collected off Waigio,Indonesia;one of which was designated to be theholotype.[4]He named the speciesCaranx melampygus,placing the species in the jack genusCaranxwhich had been established byBernard Lacépèdethree decades previously. The name'sspecific epithetis derived from the Latin translation of "black spotted".[5]This is still currently considered the correct placement, however later authors placed in other now defunct genera (CarangusandCarangichthys) which has since been deemed incorrect, and the original classification stands.[6]The species was independently redescribed and named seven times after Cuvier's initial description, with all of these names assigned between 1836 and 1895. The namesC. bixanthopterusandC. stellatuswere often used in the literature, and were variably classed assynonymsofC. melampygusor valid individual species after their naming. This confusion culminated in Yojiro Wakiya concluding in 1924 they should be treated as separate species.[7]The taxonomy of the species was finally revised by Frederick Berry in 1965, who resolved these two names as being synonymous withC. melampygus,and placed several other names in synonymy withC. melampygus.[7]UnderICZNnomenclature rules, these later names are deemedjunior synonymsofC. melampygusand rendered invalid.[6]The species has not been included in any detailedphylogeneticstudies of the Carangidae.[citation needed]

The species is mostcommonlyreferred to as the 'bluefin trevally', with the species's distinctive blue fins contributing to most of its other common names. These include bluefin jack, bluefin kingfish, blue ulua, omilu, bluefinned crevalle and spotted trevally. The species has many other non-English names due to its wide distribution.[2]

Description

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The bluefin trevally is a large fish, growing to a maximum known length of 117 cm and a weight of 43.5 kg,[2]however it is rare at lengths greater than 80 cm.[8]It is similar in shape to a number of other large jacks and trevallies, having an oblong, compressed body with thedorsalprofile slightly more convex than theventralprofile, particularlyanteriorly.This slight convexity leads to the species having a much more pointed snout than most other members ofCaranx.[9]Thedorsal finis in two parts, the first consisting of 8spinesand the second of 1 spine followed by 21 to 24soft rays.Theanal finconsists of 2anteriorlydetached spines followed by 1 spine and 17 to 20 soft rays.[10]Thepelvic finscontain 1 spine and 20 soft rays.[11]Thecaudal finis strongly forked, and thepectoral finsare falcate, being longer than the length of the head. Thelateral linehas a pronounced and moderately long anterior arch, with the curved section intersecting the straight section below the lobe of the second dorsal fin. The curved section of the lateral line contains 55-70scales[11]while the straight section contains 0 to 10 scales followed by 27 to 42 strongscutes.The chest is completely covered in scales.[12]The upper jaw contains a series of strong outercanineswith an inner band of smaller teeth, while the lower jaw contains a single row of widely spaced conical teeth. The species has 25 to 29gill rakersin total and there are 24vertebraepresent.[8]The eye is covered by a moderately weakly developedadipose eyelid,and the posterior extremity of thejawis vertically under or just past the anterior margin of the eye.[8]Despite their wide range, the only geographical variation in the species is the depth of the body in smaller specimens.[7]

The upper body of the bluefin trevally is a silver-brassy colour, fading to silvery white on the underside of the fish, often with blue hues. After they reach lengths greater than 16 cm, blue-black spots appear on the upper flanks of the fish, with these becoming more prolific with age.[10]There is no dark spot on theoperculum.The species takes its name from the colour of its dorsal, anal and caudal fins, which are a diagnosticelectric blue.The pelvic and pectoral fins are white, with the pectoral fin having a yellow tinge. Juvenile fish do not have the bright blue fins, instead have dark fins with the exception of a yellow pectoral fin.[9]Some juvenile fish have also been recorded as having up to five dark vertical bars on their sides.[7]

Distribution

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A bluefin trevally photographed in theMaldives;this species is widely distributed

The bluefin trevally is widely distributed, occupying thetropicaland subtropical waters of theIndianandPacific Oceans,ranging along the coasts of fourcontinentsand hundreds of smaller islands andarchipelagos.[8]In the Indian Ocean, the species easternmost range is the coast of continentalAfrica,being distributed from the southern tip ofSouth Africa[13]north along the east African coastline to theRed SeaandPersian Gulf.The species' range extends eastwards along theAsiancoastline includingPakistan,Indiaand intoSouth East Asia,theIndonesian Archipelagoand northernAustralia.[2]The southernmost record from the west coast of Australia comes fromExmouth Gulf.[14]Elsewhere in the Indian Ocean, the species has been recorded from hundreds of small island groups including theMaldives,Seychelles,Madagascarand theCocos (Keeling) Islands.[2]

The bluefin trevally is abundant in the central Indo-Pacific region, found throughout all the archipelagos and offshore islands including Indonesia,PhilippinesandSolomon Islands.Along continental Asia, the species has been recorded fromMalaysiatoVietnamand mainlandChina.[2]Its offshore range does extend north toHong Kong,Taiwanand southernJapanin the north western Pacific.[8][11]In the south, the species reaches as far south asSydneyin Australia.[14]Its distribution continues throughout the western Pacific includingTonga,Western SamoaandPolynesia,and theHawaiianIslands.[12][15]The easternmost limit of the species distribution is theMesoamericancoastline betweenMexicoandEcuadorin the central eastern Pacific,[8]including islands such as theGalápagos Islands.[16]

Habitat

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A lone bluefin trevally patrolling acoral reef,one of the species most common habitats

The bluefin trevally occurs in a wide range ofinshoreand offshore marine settings throughout its range, includingestuarinewaters. The species is known to move throughout the water column; however is most often observed in ademersalsetting, swimming not far from the seabed.[17]In the inshore environment, the species is present in almost all settings including bays,harbours,coraland rockyreefs,lagoons,sand flats andseagrass meadows.[18][19][20] Juveniles and subadults are more common in these settings, and prefer these more protected environments, where they live in water to a minimum of around 2 m depth.[21]Adults tend to prefer more exposed, deeper settings such as outer reef slopes, outlyingatollsand bomboras, often near drop offs,[16]with the species reported from depths up to 183 m.[21]Adults often enter shallowerchannels,reefs and lagoons to feed at certain periods during the day.[18]The bluefin trevally displays some habitat partitioning withgiant trevally,Caranx ignobilis,tending to be more common outside the major bays than their relatives.[22]

Juvenile and subadult bluefin trevally have been recorded in estuaries in several locations,[19]and generally occupy large, open estuaries up to the middle reaches of the system. These estuaries are often lined by mudflats andmangroves,however the species rarely enters these shallow waters.[23]Individuals of between 40 and 170 mm have been recorded in South African estuaries, where they are the least tolerant carangid to thebrackishand freshwater conditions of these systems. Bluefin trevally can toleratesalinitiesof between 6.0 and 35 ‰, and only occupy clear, lowturbiditywaters. There is evidence the species is only resident in these estuaries for short periods.[24]The species is also absent from coastal lakes that many other carangids are known from.[23]

Biology and ecology

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Bluefin trevally in the Pacific

The bluefin trevally is aschoolingspecies as a juvenile, transitioning to a more solitary fish with well definedhome rangesas an adult.[25]Adults do school to formspawningaggregations or temporarily while hunting, with evidence from laboratory studies indicates bluefin trevally are able to coordinate these aggregations overcoral reefsbased on the release ofdimethylsulfoniopropionate(DMSP) from the reef. DMSP is a naturally occurring chemical produced bymarine algaeand to a lesser extentcoralsand their symbioticzooxanthellae.[26]The number of fish present in an area is also influenced bytidalfactors and possibly the abundance ofpreyand other environmental factors.[25]Tracking studies in Hawaii have found bluefin trevallypatrolback and forth along a home range of patch reef walls during the day, only stopping for variable periods where major depth changes or discontinuities in the reef were present. Several fish patrol the same reef patch, reversing direction where the others do. While most fish patrol the one reef, some have been observed to make excursions to nearby reefs, before returning to their home reef later.[27]Nighttime movements are less extensive than daytime movements, with the trevally moving rapidly between several small reef sections, before slowing down and milling in one patch for around an hour. The fish living in a particular region congregate in one area at night, before returning to their individual daytime range during the day. The reason for this congregation is unclear, but may be important to the social structure of the species.[27]Long-term studies have found the fish may range up to 10.2 km over several months, however, is much less restricted in its movements than its relative, the giant trevally.[28]A Hawaiianbiomassstudy found the species to be one of the most abundant largepredatorsin the islands, however it is less abundant in the heavily exploited Main Hawaiian Islands compared to the remote Northwest Hawaiian Islands. The main difference in these populations was the relative lack of large adult fish in the inhabited areas compared to the remote, unfished regions.[29]A study on carangids caught during afishing tournamentin Hawaii found the bluefin trevally is the most common trevally species taken, accounting for over 80% of the carangid catch. The authors note that this may not only reflect its abundance, but also it vulnerability to specific fishing methods used in the tournament.[22]Apart from the typical predator-prey relationship the species shows (described later), an individual of the species has been seen to rub itself against the skin of aGalapagos shark,apparently to rid itself ofparasites.This behaviour is also observed inrainbow runnerand is a rare example of a commensal cleaner relationship where the cleaner does not gain anything.[30]

Diet and feeding

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A school of bluefin trevally working abaitballofanchovies

The bluefin trevally is a fast swimming, mainlypiscivorouspredator[31]which shows a wide range in hunting techniques.[32]Two studies of adult fish in Hawaii found fish to be the dominant food type in the species, making up over 95% volume of the stomach contents by weight.[22]Here the main fish selected were small reef dwellers, with fish from the familiesLabridae,Mullidae,ScaridaeandPriacanthidaebeing the most common. Despite the preference of several families, bluefin trevally do take a very wide variety of fish in small amounts, including various species ofeel.[17][22]The species appears to have a preference for fish of a specific size, which depends on its own length and age.[33] Cephalopods(mainlyoctopusorsquid)[22]and a wide array of crustaceans are also taken in smaller quantities, withshrimps,stomatopodsandcrabsbeing the most common.[13][17]The diet of juveniles in Hawaiian and South African estuaries has also been determined, with these younger fish having a more crustacean based diet than the adults.[19][24]In Hawaii, crustaceans make up 96% of the gut contents numerically, withtanaidsandisopodsdominating the diet, while fish only make up 4% numerically.[19]Juveniles less than 170 mm in South African estuaries feed predominantly onmysidsand paenidprawns,before shifting to a more fish based diet at larger sizes. Small fish are able to effectively filter these small crustaceans from the water, while adults are not.[24]In both cases, a transition to a more fish based diet with age was found to occur, although the length at which this transition occurred varied between location.[19]The diet overlap with the similarC. ignobilisis low in the Hawaiian Islands, suggesting there is some separation of feeding niches.[17]Calculations suggest each individual bluefin trevally consumes around 45 kg of fish per year on average, making it one of the most effective predators in this habitat.[17]

The bluefin trevally displays a remarkable array of hunting techniques, ranging from midwater attacks to ambush and taking advantage of largerforage fish.The species is reported to hunt during the day, particularly atdawnandduskin most locations;[31]however it is known to be anocturnalfeeder in South Africa.[13]The bluefin trevally hunts both as a solitary individual and in groups of up to 20, with most fish preferring an individual approach.[25]In groups, these fish will rush their prey, and disperse the school, allowing for isolated individuals to be picked out and eaten,[25]much in the way the related species, giant trevally have been observed to do in captivity.[34]In some cases, only one individual in a group will attack the prey school. Where the prey is schoolingreef fishes,once the prey school has been attacked, the trevally chases down the prey as they scatter back to cover in the corals, often colliding with coral as they attempt to snatch a fish.[32]While hunting in midwater, fish swim both against and with thetide,although significantly more fish hunt when swimming with the tide (i.e. 'downstream'), suggesting some mechanical advantage is gained when hunting in this mode.[25]Another method of attack isambush;in this mode the trevally change their colour to a darkpigmentationstate and hide behind large coral lumps close to where the aggregations (often spawning reef fish) occur.[32]Once the prey is close enough to the hiding spot, the fish ram the base of the school, before chasing down individual fish. These dark fish in ambush mode vigorously drive away any other bluefin trevally that stray too close to the aggregation.[32]Ambushes have also been observed on small midwater planktivorous fishes are moving to or from the shelter of the reef.[25]In many cases, the species uses changes in the depth of the reef such as ledges to conceal its ambush attacks. Bluefin trevally also enter lagoons as the tide rises to hunt smallbaitfishin the shallow confines, leaving as the tide falls.[35]The species is also known to follow largerays,sharksand other foraging fish such asgoatfishandwrassearound sandy substrates, waiting to pounce on any disturbed crustaceans or fish which are flushed out by the larger fish.[31][36]

Life history

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It takes 12 years for a bluefin trevally to reach 85 cm in length

The bluefin trevally reachessexual maturityat between 30 and 40 cm in length and around 2 years in age,[37] with one study Hawaii suggesting maturation occurs at a length of around 35 cm on average.[17]There is also a difference in the length at maturation between the twosexes,with females on average reaching maturity at 32.5 cm length, while males attain maturity at 35 cm on average.[17]Sex ratiosin the species vary by location with population off east Africa being skewed towards males (M:F = 1.68:1),[37]while in Hawaii the opposite is true with the M:F ratio being 1:1.48.[17]The period of the year over whichspawningoccurs is also variable by location, with African fish reproducing between September and March[37]while in Hawaii this occurs between April and November, with a peak in May to July.[17]Natural spawning behaviour in the species has never been observed,[38]although large aggregations of bluefin trevally observed inPalauconsisting of over 1000 fish are believed to be for the purpose of spawning.[18]Extensive studies on the species in captivity has revealed the species to be a multiple spawner, capable of spawning at least 8 times a year, and up to twice in 5 days.[39]Spawning events are often clustered in a few consecutive or alternate days, usually in the third or fourthlunar phases.Spawning apparently occurs at night to minimise predation oneggs.[39]Fecundityin the natural environment has been reported to range from around 50 000 to 4 270 000, with larger individuals releasing more eggs.[17]Studies in captive fish show females may produce over 6 000 000 eggs per year. These eggs arepelagicand spherical, withdiametersbetween 0.72 and 0.79 mm.[39]

The development of the bluefin trevallylarvaeafter hatching has been briefly described in a study of changes in thedigestive enzymesof the species. The species has depleted its storage of energy from the egg at 3 days old, with a series of transformations including coiling of the gut and fin formation occurring beforeflexionat 26 days of age.[40]Digestive enzymes active from hatching to 30 days old show an apparent shift fromcarbohydrateutilisation toproteinandlipidutilisation as the larvae grows older.[40]Measurements from juveniles in Hawaii indicate the fish is around 70 mm by 100 days and 130 mm by 200 days.[19]Otolith data fitted to the von Bertalanffy growth curve shows the species grows to 194 mm in its first year, 340 mm in the second and 456 mm in the third year. It reaches 75 cm by 8 years of age and 85 cm by 12 years.[17]This model also suggests a growth of 0.45 mm/day; while laboratory feeding studies found the fish grow at an average of 0.4 mm/day in these confined conditions.[17]The maximum theoretical size indicated from the growth curves is 89.7 cm,[17]much less than the 117 cm reported as the known maximum size.[2]Juveniles often enter estuaries, however the species is not estuary dependent as breeding is known to occur where no estuaries are present, suggesting the use of these habitats is facultative (optional). The fish move from these shallower inshore waters to deeper reefs as they grow.[19]

Twohybridisationevents in the species are known from Hawaii; the first with the giant trevally,Caranx ignobilisand the second with thebigeye trevally,Caranx sexfasciatus.Both were initially identified as hybrids by intermediate physical characteristics, and were later confirmed byDNA sequencing.[38]It has been suggested these hybrids resulted from mixed species schooling during spawning periods. It is thought that hybridisation is more likely if one or both parent species is rare in an area, which is the case in much of the Main Hawaiian Islands, whereoverfishinghas severely depleted all trevally species populations.[38]

Relationship to humans

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A trio of bluefin trevally patrolling aThaireef

The bluefin trevally is an important species to both commercialfisheriesandanglers,with the popularity of the fish leading to extensiveaquaculturetrials. The catch statistics for the bluefin trevally are poorly reported in most of its range, with only parts of the western Indian Ocean supplying information to theFAO.In this region, catch levels have fluctuated between 2 and 50tonnesin the past decade.[41]Hawaii also keeps catch records, with these showing the species is taken in far less numbers than the giant trevally, with only 704 pounds taken compared to 10 149 lbs of giant trevally in 1998.[42]In Hawaii, the nearshore stocks of the species have been in decline since the early 1900s, with commercial landings dropping over 300% from 1990 to 1991, and have not recovered.[39]Most bluefin trevally sold in Hawaii are now imported from other Indo-Pacific nations.[39]The species is taken by a variety ofnettingand trapping methods, as well and by hook and line in commercial fisheries. It is usually sold fresh, as well as frozen orsalted.[9]The rapid decline in the population has seen a focus on breeding the bluefin trevally in captivity. The species' aquaculture potential was first investigated in a 1975 experiment inFrench Polynesia,where juveniles of the species were caught in the wild and transported back to a laboratory. The study found the fish grew to a commercial size of 300 g in 6 to 8 months and only suffered a 5%mortality rate.It was concluded that such a technique carried out on a larger scale in lagoons would be promising due to the growth rate and relatively high price commanded by the species atmarket.[43]Further investigations into the potential for offshore aquaculture were conducted in Hawaii, where the species successfully spawned in captivity.[39]The only barrier in these studies to successful production was problems with commercial food items.[44]Anin vitrocell culturehas recently been established for the species, which will allow long term management of potentialviral diseasesthat may arise during aquaculture of the fish.[45]The bluefin trevally has been successfully kept in large saltwater aquaria, but require large water volumes to adapt well.[46]

The bluefin trevally is one of the premiergamefishof the Indo-Pacific region, although is often overshadowed by its larger cousin, the giant trevally.[47]The fish makes long powerful runs on light tackle, and is a determined fighter.[48]The species readily accepts bothbaitandlures,with live fish or squid often used as bait and a variety of lures also used on the species. Lures may include poppers, plugs, spoons, jigs, soft plastic lures and evensaltwater flies.[47][48]The species inshore habits make it a popular target forspearfishermenalso.[13]In Hawaii the species has bag and size limit restrictions in place to prevent furtheroverexploitation.[42]It is considered to be a good to excellentfood fish,however many cases ofciguaterapoisoning have been attributed to the bluefin trevally.[18]Laboratory tests have confirmed the presence of the toxin in the species flesh,[49]with fish greater than 50 cm likely to be a carrier.[2]The risk of poisoning has also affected the sales of the fish in the marketplace in recent years.[42]Also of concern is one report of infection by adracunculoidparasitewhile preparing the fish for eating. In this case, the parasite invaded the victim's body by entering an openwoundwhile he wasfilletingthe species, and is believed to be one of the first records for such cross contamination.[50]TheIGFAmaintains full line and ripped class records for the bluefin trevally. The all tackle world record for the species stands at 13.24 kg (29 lb 3oz) taken offClipperton Islandin 2012.[51]

References

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