Wikipedia

Calabash

(Redirected fromBottle gourd)
This article is about the gourd. For the winter squash with the same English name, seeCalabaza.For the trees, seeCrescentia.For other uses, seeCalabash (disambiguation).

Calabash(/ˈkæləbæʃ/;[2]Lagenaria siceraria), also known asbottle gourd,[3]white-flowered gourd,[4]long melon,birdhouse gourd,[5]New Guinea bean,New Guinea butter bean,Tasmania bean,[6]andopo squash,is avinegrown for its fruit. It can be either harvested young to be consumed as avegetable,or harvested mature to be dried and used as a utensil,container,or amusical instrument.When it is fresh, the fruit has a light green smooth skin and white flesh.

Calabash
Green calabash growing on its vine
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Cucurbitales
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Genus: Lagenaria
Species:
L. siceraria
Binomial name
Lagenaria siceraria
Synonyms[1]
List
    • Cucumis bicirrhaJ.R.Forst. ex Guill.
    • Cucumis lagenaria(L.) Dumort.
    • Cucumis maireiH.Lév.
    • Cucurbita cicerariaMolina
    • Cucurbita idololatricaWilld.
    • Cucurbita lagenariaL.
    • Cucurbita leucanthaDuchesne
    • Cucurbita longaW.M.Fletcher
    • Cucurbita pyriformisM.Roem.
    • Cucurbita sicerariaMolina
    • Cucurbita vittataBlume
    • Lagenaria bicornutaChakrav.
    • Lagenaria cochinchinensisM.Roem.
    • Lagenaria hispidaSer.
    • Lagenaria idolatrica(Willd.) Ser.
    • Lagenaria lagenaria(L.) Cockerell
    • Lagenaria leucanthaRusby
    • Lagenaria microcarpaNaudin
    • Lagenaria sicerariaf.depressa(Ser.) M.Hiroe
    • Lagenaria sicerariavar.laevispermaMillán
    • Lagenaria sicerariaf.microcarpa(Naudin) M.Hiroe
    • Lagenaria vittataSer.
    • Lagenaria vulgarisSer.
    • Lagenaria vulgarisvar.clavataSer.
    • Lagenaria vulgarisvar.gourdaSer.
    • Pepo lagenariusMoench
    • Trochomeria rehmanniiCogn.

Calabash fruits have a variety of shapes: they can be huge and rounded, small and bottle-shaped, or slim and serpentine, and they can grow to be over a metre long. Rounder varieties are typically calledcalabash gourds.The gourd was one of the world's first cultivated plants grown not primarily for food, but for use as containers. The bottle gourd may have been carried from Asia to Africa, Europe, and the Americas in the course ofhuman migration,[7]or by seeds floating across the oceans inside the gourd. It has been proven to have been globally domesticated (and existed in theNew World) during thePre-Columbian era.

There is sometimes confusion when discussing "calabash" because the name is shared with the unrelated calabash tree (Crescentia cujete), whose hard, hollow fruits are also used to make utensils, containers, and musical instruments.[8]

Etymology

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The English wordcalabashis loaned fromMiddle Frenchcalebasse,which in turn derived fromSpanishcalabazameaning gourd or pumpkin. The Spanish word is of pre-Roman origin. It comes from theIberiancalapaccu,from -cal which means house or shell. It is a doublet ofcarapaceandgalapago.[9][10][11]The English word is cognate withCatalancarabassa( "pumpkin; orange colour" ),Galiciancabaza( "gourd, pumpkin, squash; calabash (container)" ),Occitancalebasso,carabasso,carbasso,Portuguesecabaça( "gourd; calabash (container)" ) andSiciliancaravazza(andcaramazza).[citation needed]

History

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Bottle gourd curry

The bottle gourd has been recovered from archaeological contexts in China and Japan dating to ca. 8,000–9,000B.P.,[12]whereas in Africa, despite decades of high-quality archaeobotanical research, the earliest record of its occurrence remains the 1884 report of a bottle gourd being recovered from a 12th Dynasty tomb at Thebes dating to ca. 4,000B.P.[12]When considered together, the genetic and archaeological information points towardL. sicerariabeing independently brought under domestication first in Asia, and more than 4,000 years later, in Africa.[12] The bottle gourd is a commonlycultivatedplant in tropical and subtropical areas of the world, and was eventually domesticated in southern Africa. Stands ofL. siceraria,which may be source plants and not merely domesticated stands, were reported in Zimbabwe in 2004.[13]This apparent wild plant produces thinner-walled fruit that, when dried, would not endure the rigors of use on long journeys as a water container. Today's gourd may owe its tough, waterproof wall toselectionpressures over its long history ofdomestication.[14]

Gourds were cultivated in Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas for thousands of years beforeColumbus' arrival to the Americas.Polynesian specimens of calabash were found to have genetic markers suggesting hybridization from Asian and American cultivars.[15]In Europe,[16]Walahfrid Strabo(808–849), abbot and poet fromReichenauand advisor to theCarolingiankings, discussed the gourd in hisHortulusas one of the 23 plants of an ideal garden.[17][18]

The mystery of the bottle gourd – namely that this African or Eurasian species was being grown in the Americas over 8,000 years ago[19]– comes from the difficulty in understanding how it arrived in the Americas. The bottle gourd was theorized to have drifted across the Atlantic Ocean from Africa to South America, but in 2005 a group of researchers suggested that it may have been domesticated earlier than food crops and livestock and, like dogs, was brought into theNew Worldat the end of theice ageby the native hunter-gathererPaleo-Indians,which they based on a study of the genetics of archaeological samples. This study purportedly showed that gourds in American archaeological finds were more closely related to Asian variants than to African ones.[7]

In 2014 this theory was repudiated based on a more thorough genetic study. Researchers more completely examined theplastidgenomes of a broad sample of bottle gourds, and concluded that North and South American specimens were most closely related to wild African variants and could have drifted over the ocean several or many times, as long as 10,000 years ago.[20]

Cultivation

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Pollen ofLagenaria siceraria(Size: ~60 microns)

Bottle gourds are grown by direct sowing of seeds or transplanting 15- to 20-day-old seedlings. The plant prefers well-drained, moist, organic rich soil. It requires plenty of moisture in the growing season and a warm, sunny position, sheltered from the wind. It can be cultivated in small places such as in a pot, and allowed to spread on a trellis or roof. In rural areas, many houses with thatched roofs are covered with the gourd vines. Bottle gourds grow very rapidly and their stems can reach a length of 9 m in the summer, so they need a solid support along the stem if they are to climb a pole or trellis. If planted under a tall tree, the vine may grow up to the top of the tree. To obtain more fruit, farmers sometimes cut off the tip of the vine when it has grown to 6–8 feet in length. This forces the plant to produce side branches that will bear flowers and yield more fruit.

The plant produces night blooming white flowers. The male flowers have long peduncles and the females have short ones with an ovary in the shape of the fruit. Sometimes the female flowers drop off without growing into a gourd due to the failure of pollination if there is no night pollinator (probably a kind of moth) in the garden. Hand pollination can be used to solve the problem. Pollens are around 60 microns in length.

First crop is ready for harvest within two months; first flowers open in about 45 days from sowing. Each plant can yield 1 fruit per day for the next 45 days if enough nutrients are available.

Yield ranges from 35 to 40 tons/ha, per season of 3 months cycle.

Toxicity

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Like other members of the familyCucurbitaceae,gourds containcucurbitacinsthat are known to becytotoxicat a high concentration. Thetetracyclictriterpenoidcucurbitacins present in fruits and vegetables of the cucumber family are responsible for the bitter taste, and could cause stomach ulcers. In extreme cases, people have died from drinking the juice of gourds.[21][22][23] The toxic cases are usually due to the gourd being used to make juice, which the drinkers described as being unusually bitter.[24]In three of the lethal cases, the victims were diabetics in their 50s and 60s.[24]In 2018, a healthy woman in her 40s was hospitalized for severe reactions after consuming the juice and died three days later from complications.[25]

The plant is not normally toxic when eaten. The excessively bitter (and toxic) gourds are due to improper storage (temperature swings or high temperature) and over-ripening.[24]

Nutrition

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Boiled calabash is 95% water, 4%carbohydrates,1%protein,and contains negligiblefat(table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), cooked calabash supplies a moderate amount ofvitamin C(10% of theDaily Value), with no othermicronutrientsin significant amounts (table).

Calabash, cooked, no salt
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy63 kJ (15 kcal)
3.69 g
Dietary fiber1.2 g
0.02 g
0.6 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
2%
0.029 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
2%
0.022 mg
Niacin (B3)
2%
0.39 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
3%
0.144 mg
Vitamin B6
2%
0.038 mg
Folate (B9)
1%
4 μg
Vitamin C
9%
8.5 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
2%
24 mg
Iron
1%
0.25 mg
Magnesium
3%
11 mg
Manganese
3%
0.066 mg
Phosphorus
1%
13 mg
Potassium
6%
170 mg
Sodium
0%
2 mg
Zinc
6%
0.7 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water95 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[26]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[27]

Culinary uses

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Central America

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In Central America the seeds of the bottle gourd are toasted and ground with other ingredients (including rice, cinnamon, and allspice) to make one type of the drinkhorchata.

East Asia

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China

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The calabash is frequently used in southern Chinese cuisine in either a stir-fry dish or a soup.

Japan

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Calabash varieties, illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia Seikei Zusetsu (1804)

In Japan, it is commonly sold in the form of dried, marinated strips known askanpyōand is used as an ingredient for makingmakizushi(rolledsushi).

Korea

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Traditionally in Korea, the inner flesh has been eaten asnamulvegetable and the outside cut in half to make bowls. Both fresh and dried flesh ofbakis used inKorean cuisine.Fresh calabash flesh, scraped out, seeded, salted and squeezed to draw out moisture, is calledbaksok.Scraped and sun-dried calabash flesh, calledbak-goji,is usually soaked before being stir-fried. Soakedbak-gojiis often simmered in sauce or stir-fried before being added tojapchaeandgimbap.[28][29]Sometimes uncooked rawbaksokis seasoned to makesaengchae.

  • Bak-namul(seasoned calabash side dish)

Southeast Asia

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Burma

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In Burma, it is a popular fruit. The young leaves are also boiled and eaten with a spicy, fermented fish sauce. It can also be cut up, coated in batter and deep fried to makefritters,which are eaten with Burmesemohinga.

Philippines

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In the Philippines, calabash (known locally asupo) is commonly cooked in soup dishes liketinola.They are also common ingredients in noodle (pancit) dishes.

Vietnam

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InVietnam,it is a very popular vegetable, commonly cooked in soup with shrimp, meatballs, clams, various fish likefreshwater catfishorsnakeheadfish or crab. It is also commonly stir-fried with meat or seafood, or incorporated as an ingredient of ahotpot.It is also used as a medicine. Americans have called calabashes from Vietnam "opo squash".

Theshoots,tendrils,andleavesof the plant may also be eaten asgreens.

South Asia

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India

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An Indian calabash
Bengali dish made with the stems and leaves of a bottle gourd plant

A popular north Indian dish islauki chana,(chana daland diced gourd in a semi-dry gravy). In the state ofMaharashtrain India, a similar preparation calleddudhi chanais popular. The skin of the vegetable is used in making a dry spicychutneypreparation. It is consumed inAssamwithfish curry,as boiled vegetablecurryand also fried with potato and tomatoes.Laukikheer(grated bottle gourd, sugar and milk preparation) is a dessert fromTelangana,usually prepared for festive occasions. In Andhra Pradesh it is calledsorakayaand is used to makesorakaya pulusu(with tamarind juice),sorakaya palakura(curry with milk and spices) andsorakaya pappu(withlentils).Lau chingri,a dish prepared with bottle gourd andprawn,is popular inWest Bengal.[30]The edible leaves and young stems of the plant are widely used inBengali cuisine.Although popularly calledlaukiin Hindi in northern part of the country, it is also calledkadduin certain parts of country like eastern India. (However, "kaddu" popularly translates to "pumpkin" in northern India.) It can be consumed as a dish with rice orrotifor its medicinal benefits. In Gujarat, a traditional Gujarati savoury cake calledhandvois made primarily using bottle gourd (in Gujarati,dudhi), sesame seeds, flour, and often lentils. In Karnataka, bottle gourd is calledSorekayiand is used to preparepalya(stir-fry) andSambaru(a south Indian stew). Also, crispysorekayi dosé(dosa) is one of the popular breakfasts in Karnataka.

Bangladesh

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In Bangladesh the fruit is served with rice as a common dish.

Nepal

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In Nepal, in theMadheshisouthern plains, preparations other than as a normal vegetable includehalvaandkhichdi.

Pakistan

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In Pakistan, the calabash is cultivated on a large scale as its fruit are a popular vegetable.

Sri Lanka

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In Sri Lanka, it is used in combination with rice to make a variety of milk rice, which is a popular dish in Sri Lanka. Different types of curries are also made using this, specially white curries with coconut milk.

Europe

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Italy

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In Southern Italy and Sicily, the variety Lagenaria siceraria var. longissima, called zucca da vino, zucca bottiglia, or cucuzza, is grown and used in soup or along with pasta.

In Sicily, mostly in the Palermo area, a traditional soup called "Minestra di Tenerumi" is made with the tender leaves of var. Longissima along with peeled tomato and garlic. The young leaves are themselves called "tenerumi", and Lagenaria in Sicily is cultivated both professionally and in home orchards mostly to use the leaves as a vegetable, the fruit being treated almost as a secondary product.[31]

It is also grown by theItalian diaspora.[32]

  • Man with cucuzza

Cultural uses

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Africa

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Hollowed-out and dried calabashes are a very typical utensil in households across West Africa. They are used to clean rice, carry water, and as food containers. Smaller sizes are used as bowls to drinkpalm wine.Calabashes are used in making the West African instruments like theṢẹ̀kẹ̀rẹ̀,a Yoruba instrument similar to a maraca,kora(aharp-lute),xalam/ngoni(a lute) and thegoje(a traditional fiddle). They also serve as resonators underneath thebalafon(West Africanmarimba). The calabash is also used in making theshegureh(a Sierra Leonean women's rattle)[33]andbalangi(a Sierra Leonean type ofbalafon) musical instruments. Sometimes large calabashes are simply hollowed, dried and used as percussion instruments by striking them, especially byFulani,Songhai,Gur-speaking andHausapeoples. InNigeriathe calabash has been used by some motorcyclists as an imitation helmet in an attempt to circumvent motorcycle helmet laws.[34]InSouth Africait is commonly used as a drinking vessel and a vessel for carrying food by communities, such as theBapediandAmaZulu.Erbore children of Ethiopia wear hats made from the calabash to protect them from the sun. South Africa'sFNB Stadium,which hosted the2010 FIFA World Cup,is known as The Calabash as its shape takes inspiration from the calabash. The calabash is also used in the manufacture ofpuppets.

Calabash also has a large cultural significance. In many African legends, Calabash (commonly referred to as gourds) are presented as a vessel for knowledge and wisdom.[35]

China

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Thehúlu(Hồ lô/Hồ lô), as the calabash is called inMandarin Chinese,is an ancient symbol for health. Hulu had fabled healing properties due to doctors in former times carrying medicine inside it. Thehuluwas believed to absorb negative, earth-basedqi(energy) that would otherwise affect health, and is atraditional Chinese medicinecure. The bottle gourd is a symbol of theEight Immortals,and particularlyLi Tieguai,who is associated with medicine. Li Tieguai's gourd was said to carry medicine that could cure any illness and never emptied, which he dispensed to the poor and needy.[36][37]Some folk myths say the "gourd had spirals of smoke ascend from it, denoting his power of setting his spirit free from his body,"[38]and that it "served as a bedroom for the night..."[37]The gourd is also an attribute of the deityShouxingand a symbol of longevity.[39]

Dried calabash were also used as containers for liquids, often liquors or medicines. Calabash gourds were also grown in earthen molds to form different shapes with imprinted floral or arabesque designs. Molded gourds were also dried to housepet crickets.The texture of the gourd lends itself nicely to the sound of the insect, much like a musical instrument. The musical instrument,hulusi,is a kind of flute made from the gourd.[clarification needed]

  • AQing dynastycricket cage
  • A bottle gourd
  • Ahulusi,the calabash gourd flute or bottle gourd flute

Jewish culture

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In theSafaradi Jewishculture, the gourd is eaten during Rosh Hashana (Jewish New Year's Eve). According to the texts the gourd is eaten as a symbol of tearing apart the enemies who may come and attack. It is called Qaraa, which in Hebrew means "torn" קרע. "שיקרעו אויבנו מעלינו" meaning "may our enemies be torn apart over from us".[citation needed]

Polynesia

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The plant is spread throughoutPolynesiaknown byhuein many related languages.[40]

InHawaiithe word "calabash" refers to a large serving bowl, usually made from hardwood rather than from the calabash gourd, which is used on a buffet table or in the middle of the dining table. The use of the calabash in Hawaii has led to terms like "calabash family" or "calabash cousins", indicating an extended family grown up around shared meals and close friendships. This gourd is often dried when ripe and used as a percussion instrument called anipu heke(double gourd drum) or justIpuin contemporary and ancienthula.

TheMāori peopleofNew Zealandgrew several cultivars of calabash for particular uses likeipu kaicultivars as food containers andtahā waicultivars as water gourds. They believed the gourd as a representation of Pū-tē-hue, one ofTāne(their god of forests)'s offspring.[41]

India

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The calabash is used as a resonator in many string instruments in India. Instruments that look like guitars are made of wood, but can have a calabash resonator at the end of the strings table, calledtoomba.Thesitar,thesurbahar,thetanpura(north of India,tamburasouth of India), may have atoomba.In some cases, thetoombamay not be functional, but if the instrument is large, it is retained because of its balance function, which is the case of theSaraswati veena.Other instruments likerudra veenaandvichitra veenahave two large calabash resonators at both ends of the strings table. The instrument, Gopichand used by the Baul singers of Bengal is made out of calabash. The practice is also common amongBuddhistandJainsages.[42]

Thesetoombasare made of dried calabash gourds, using special cultivars that were originally imported from Africa and Madagascar. They are mostly grown inBengaland nearMiraj,Maharashtra.These gourds are valuable items and they are carefully tended; for example, they are sometimes given injections to stop worms and insects from making holes in them while they are drying.

  • Sitarsand onerudra veena(down right)
  • Sitar with resonator made from a bottle gourd.[43]Surbaharis similar but larger and with lower sounds (something like a basssitar)[44]
  • Saraswati veena,the calabash resonator is not always functional but it is kept in place because of the balancing effect.[45]
  • Rudra veena is a large pluckedstring instrumentused inHindustani classical music.One of the major types ofveenaplayed in Indian classical music, it has two calabash gourd resonators.[45]Thevichitra veena,also with two large resonators, is a similar instrument.
  • Ektara(one string) resonator made from a calabash gourd
  • Thetamburaortanpuramay have atoomba(although not in this picture), a resonator made of calabash at the end of the strings table.[46]

Hinduascetics (sadhu) traditionally use a dried gourd vessel called thekamandalu.The juice of a bottle gourd is considered to have medicinal properties and be very healthy (see juice toxicity above).

In parts of India a dried, unpunctured gourd is used as a float (calledsurai-kuduvaiin Tamil) to help people learn to swim in rural areas.

Philippines

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In the Philippines, dried calabash gourds are one common material for making a traditionalsalakothat.[47]

In 2012, Teófilo García ofAbrainLuzon,an expert artisan who makes theIlocanotamburawvariant using calabash, was awarded by theNational Commission for Culture and the Artswith the"Gawad sa Manlilikha ng Bayan"(National Living Treasures Award). He was cited for his dedication to practising and teaching the craft as anintangible cultural heritageof the Philippines under the Traditional Craftsmanship category.[47]

  • Salakotin theBangko Sentral ng PilipinasMoney Museum, with the bottom one made from calabash
  • Salakotfrom the Philippines (c.1900), the top one is made from calabash
  • Bust ofDiego Silang,the 18th-century Ilocano revolutionary leader, shown wearing atamburawmade from gourd

New Guinea

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Among some New Guinea highland tribes, the calabash is used by men as apenis sheath.

South America

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In Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Chile and southern Brazil, calabash gourds are dried and carved intomates(from theQuichuawordmathi,[48]adopted into the Spanish language), the traditional container formate,the caffeinated, tea-like drink brewed from theyerba mateplant. In the region the beverage itself is calledmateas well as the calabash from which the drinking vessels are made. In Peru it is used in a popular practice for the making ofmate burilado;"burilado"is the technique adopted for decorating thematecalabashes.

  • L. siceraria"mate"type.
  • Calabash used as a container for drinkingmatewith a metalbombilla.
  • Matecarved and decorated as a drinking container (also calledmate,and the infusion also calledmate).
  • Mate buriladoin Peru

In Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador calabash gourds are used for medicinal purposes. TheIncaculture applied symbols from folklore to gourds, this practice is still familiar and valued.

North America

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Calabash's watertight features allowed it to be often used as container to ship seeds across the translantic slave trade.[35]They were also used by enslaved people to carry seeds for planting on plantation fields.[35]On plantations that held enslaved African Americans, the Calabash symbolized freedom—as alluded to in the song "Follow the Drinking Gourd" that referenced the Big Dipper constellation that was used to guide the Underground Railroad.[35]

Other uses

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Tobacco smoking pipe

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See also:Smoking pipe (tobacco) § Calabash

The gourd can be dried and used to smoke pipetobacco.According to American consular reports from the early 20th century calabash pipes were commonly used in South Africa. Calabash was said to bestow a "special softness" of flavor that could not be duplicated by other materials. The lining was made ofmeerschaum,thoughtinwas used for low-grade models.[49]A typical design yielded by this squash is recognized (theatrically) as the pipe ofSherlock Holmes,but the inventor of this character,Sir Arthur Conan Doyle,never mentioned Holmes using a calabash pipe. It was the preferred pipe for stage actors portraying Holmes, because they could balance this pipe better than other styles while delivering their lines.[citation needed]

Enema equipment

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The gourd is used traditionally to administerenemas.Along the upper Congo River an enema apparatus is made by making a hole in one end of the gourd for filling it, and using a resin to attach a hollow cane to the gourd's neck.[50]

References

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  1. ^"Lagenaria siceraria(Molina) Standl ".Plants of the World Online.Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2017.Retrieved2 December2020.
  2. ^"calabash noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes | Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at".Oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com.Retrieved6 May2022.
  3. ^USDA, NRCS(n.d.)."​Lagenaria siceraria​".The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov).Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team.Retrieved22 January2016.
  4. ^BSBI List 2007(xls).Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland.Archived fromthe original(xls)on 26 June 2015.Retrieved17 October2014.
  5. ^"Grow Birdhouse Gourds".FineGardening.25 April 2009.Retrieved25 July2021.
  6. ^Hill, Kathryn (1 September 2009)."Ingredient Spotlight: Cucuzza (" Googootz ")".The Kitchn.
  7. ^abErickson, D. L; Smith, B. D; Clarke, A. C; Sandweiss, D. H; Tuross, N (2005)."An Asian origin for a 10,000-year-old domesticated plant in the Americas".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.102(51): 18315–20.Bibcode:2005PNAS..10218315E.doi:10.1073/pnas.0509279102.PMC1311910.PMID16352716.
  8. ^Price, Sally (1982). "When is a calabash not a calabash".New West Indian Guide:56:69–82.
  9. ^"Romance Philology Volume 13".p. 39.Retrieved26 August2024.
  10. ^"Del origen y principio de la lengua castellana ò romance que oi se usa en España ideas lingüísticas de Aldrete · Volume 2".p. 345.Retrieved26 August2024.
  11. ^"calabaza".Etimologías de Chile.Retrieved26 August2024.
  12. ^abcErickson, David L.; Smith, Bruce D.; Clarke, Andrew C.; Sandweiss, Daniel H.; Tuross, Noreen (20 December 2005)."An Asian origin for a 10,000-year-old domesticated plant in the Americas".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.102(51): 18315–18320.Bibcode:2005PNAS..10218315E.doi:10.1073/pnas.0509279102.PMC1311910.PMID16352716.
  13. ^Decker-Walters, Deena S; Wilkins-Ellert, Mary; Chung, Sang-Min; Staub, Jack E (2004). "Discovery and Genetic Assessment of Wild Bottle Gourd [Lagenaria Siceraria (Mol.) Standley; Cucurbitaceae] from Zimbabwe".Economic Botany.58(4): 501–8.doi:10.1663/0013-0001(2004)058[0501:DAGAOW]2.0.CO;2.hdl:10113/44303.JSTOR4256864.S2CID32430173.
  14. ^Clarke, Andrew C; Burtenshaw, Michael K; McLenachan, Patricia A; Erickson, David L; Penny, David (2006)."Reconstructing the Origins and Dispersal of the Polynesian Bottle Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria)".Molecular Biology and Evolution.23(5): 893–900.doi:10.1093/molbev/msj092.PMID16401685.
  15. ^Clarke, Andrew C.; Burtenshaw, Michael K.; McLenachan, Patricia A.; Erickson, David L.; Penny, David (May 2006)."Reconstructing the Origins and Dispersal of the Polynesian Bottle Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria)".Molecular Biology and Evolution.23(5): 893–900.doi:10.1093/molbev/msj092.PMID16401685.Retrieved28 November2022.
  16. ^Gemüse des Jahres 2002: Der Flaschenkürbis(in German). Schandelah: VEN – Verein zur Erhaltung der Nutzpflanzen Vielfalt e.V. 2002. Archived fromthe originalon 10 August 2007.Retrieved14 July2010.
  17. ^Strabo, Walahfrid (2000).De cultura hortorum(in Latin and German). Näf, W.; és Gabathuler, M. (ford.). Thorbecke.ISBN978-3-7995-3504-5.Archived fromthe originalon 29 September 2007.Retrieved14 July2010.
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