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Eighth Army (United Kingdom)

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TheEighth Armywas afield armyof theBritish Armyduring theSecond World War.It was formed as theWestern Armyon 10 September 1941, in Egypt, before being renamed theArmy of the Nileand then the Eighth Army on 26 September. It was created to better control the growing Allied forces based in Egypt and to direct their efforts to lift thesiege of TobrukviaOperation Crusader.

Western Army
Army of the Nile
Eighth Army
The Eighth Army's formation insignia
Active10 September 1941 – 29 July 1945
CountryUnited Kingdom
BranchBritish Army
TypeField army
EngagementsNorth African campaign
Italian campaign

It later directed Allied forces through the remaining engagements of theWestern Desert campaign,oversaw part of the Allied effort during theTunisian campaignand finally led troops throughout theItalian campaign.During 1943, it made up part of the18th Army Groupbefore being assigned to the15th Army Group(later, theAllied Armies in Italy).

Throughout its campaigns, it was a multi-national force and its units came fromAustralia,British India,Canada,Czechoslovakia,Cyprus,theFree French Forces,Greece,Newfoundland,New Zealand,Poland,Rhodesia,South Africa,Mauritius,as well as the United Kingdom. Significant formations that the army controlled included the BritishV,X,XIII,andXXX Corps,as well as theI Canadian Corpsand theII Polish Corps.

Background

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TheSuez Canalin Egypt, was seen as a vital link of theBritish Empireconnecting Britain with its colonial possessions in the Far East, especiallyBritish India.It also held economic and prestigious importance. To maintain this,Egypt was occupied in 1882and aprotectoratewas subsequently established.[1]During theinter-war period,the Middle East and the canal gained further importance as oil production expanded and as aerial links between Britain and British India were developed. In 1935, British policy shifted to view Italy as the principal threat towards British interests in the Middle East, due to theircolonial ambitionsas well as their military build-up and theSecond Italo-Ethiopian War.[2]TheAnglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936followed, before tensions simmered with a joint declaration, on 2 January 1937, by Italy and Britain to maintain the status quo around the Mediterranean. Relations quickly deteriorated and British reinforcements were dispatched to Egypt. Troops were moved from near Cairo and from the canal zone toMersa Matruh,170 mi (270 km) west ofAlexandriain theWestern Desert,to be in a position to protect Egypt from an Italian invasion from theirLibyan colony.[3][4]

A map of the Western Desert, detailing battles and movements between 13 September 1940 – 30 May 1941 (enlargeable).

On 10 June 1940, Italy entered theSecond World War.Later in the year, between 13 and 16 September, Italy conducted theItalian invasion of Egypt.[5]A counterattack,Operation Compass,took place in December, which destroyed the Italian10th Armyand captured the Libyan province ofCyrenaica.The attack was undertaken by theWestern Desert Force,which was renamedXIII Corpsafter the conclusion of the operation.[6]AfterOperation Sonnenblumethe dispatch of Axis reinforcements to Africa, Italo-German forces riposted in March 1941, which drove the main British body into Egypt and destroyed part of the2nd Armoured Division.A sizeableAustralian forcewas surrounded in the Libyan port ofTobruk.This led to thesiege of Tobrukand required the bulk of the German and Italian troops to maintain and hindered further large Axis offensive operations.[7]On 15 May,Operation Brevitywas launched as British troops, from inside Egypt, attacked towards the Egyptian–Libyan border area. This minor effort failed to meet its objectives and ended the following day.Operation Skorpiona small German counterattack, at the end of the month, recaptured the ground lost during Brevity.[8]Operation Battleaxe,which started on 15 June, was a determined two-day effort to advance from Egypt and lift the siege of Tobruk. Italian-German forces repulsed the assault and no terrain was gained.[9]Geopolitical considerations followed, as pressure built on the British commanders to launch a new offensive to break the siege. These took account of the majority of the German military being involved inOperation Barbarossathe invasion of theSoviet Unionand the need to show that British forces were doing their part in bringing about the defeat of the Axis powers. Closer to the front and after months of political debate, it was decided that the Australian garrison in Tobruk had to be relieved. This took place between September and October, as the Australians were gradually replaced by the British70th Infantry Divisionwhich was shipped into the port.[10][11]

History

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Formation

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During 1941, XIII Corps was the primary British formation in Egypt. The process of forming a second, initially known as the Armoured Corps before being renamedXXX Corps(this corps would not become active until October 1941), had also started. Due to the increased size of the British forces in Egypt and the forming second corps, it was decided in September 1941, that afield armyheadquarters was needed to direct these formations. On 10 September, the Western Army headquarters was established inCairo.The name was subsequently changed to the Army of the Nile, before being changed to the Eighth Army on 26 September.[12][13]Winston Churchill,theBritish Prime Minister,sometimes referred to the army as the Western Desert Force.[14][15]

Alan Cunningham, after his appointment to command the Eighth Army

Churchill suggested GeneralHenry Maitland Wilsonfor command of the army but the final decision was left in the hands of General SirClaude Auchinleckthe GOCMiddle East Commandwho oversaw all British-led forces in the region.[16]Auchinleck selected Lieutenant-GeneralAlan Cunningham,who had led the British effort fromKenyaduring theEast African campaign.On 29 August 1941, due to the success he had achieved, he was ordered to Egypt to take command of the forming Eighth Army, which he did on 24 September.[16][17]The Eighth Army was responsible for operations in the Western Desert and was supported by the existing command,British Troops in Egypt,that controlled thelines of communication,the Egyptian anti-aircraft defences andinternal securitybehind the front.[18]

The7th Armoured Division,which formed part of the army, was nicknamed the Desert Rats after theJerboa,their choice of mascot and insignia.George Forty,a historian who has written about the division, commented that the fame of the 7th Armoured Division resulted in its nickname being "loosely attached to any member of the forces who served in the Western Desert".[19]Robin Neillands,in his work on the Eighth Army, wrote "It is worth pointing out here that the term 'Desert Rat', though often used to describe any soldier of the Desert Army or the men who fought in Tobruk – the Australians have a 'Rats of Tobruk' Association – should strictly be applied only to the men of the British 7th Armoured Division ".[20]

Crusader to Gazala

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Neil Ritchie (center with pipe) who replaced Cunningham during Operation Crusader, pictured during the Battle of Gazala flanked by corps commanders.

One of the first tasks undertaken by the Eighth Army, withX Corps(Lieutenant-GeneralWilliam Holmes) that had recently arrived in Egypt, was to conduct preliminary work on defensive positions atEl Alamein.This lasted until late October, when the corps moved toSyriaand British Troops in Egypt took over responsibility.[18]From his appointment, Cunningham closely worked with Auchinleck to formulate the Crusader plan, which was to retake Cyrenaica and lift the siege of Tobruk. The Eighth Army established forward supply bases, field maintenance centres and constructed a 160 mi (260 km) pipeline to provide water.[21]On 18 November, the battle commenced. It saw the 118,000 men and 738 tanks of the Eighth Army, the main force coming from Egypt and also including the Tobruk garrison, engage the Italian-German force of 119,000 men and 552 tanks. The fighting started on 18 November and Crusader achieved its objectives by the end of the year.[22]

On 25 November, after a German counterattack into Egypt during Crusader had been repulsed, Cunningham was dismissed by Auchinleck. His replacement was Auchinleck's deputy chief of the general staff, Major-GeneralNeil Ritchie,who was chosen due to his familiarity with the Crusader plan. Theofficial historyof the campaign recorded that the decision was made due to Auchinleck perceiving Cunningham as being too defensive minded. This resulted in a loss of confidence over his "ability to press to the bitter end the offensive he had been ordered to continue".[23]Evan McGilvray and Philip Warner, historians who have written about Auchinleck, added additional factors such as Auchinleck's concern that Cunningham was stressed, exhausted and had problems with his sight that would require time away from command.[24][25]Michael Carver,who fought in the battle and was later a field marshal and historian, concurred with the health assessment. He also noted that while Cunningham was "an imaginative choice", it was later clear his "appointment was a mistake" due to his lack of experience and confidence in the mobile requirements of the fighting in North Africa.[26]Neillands highlighted that Ritchie was thrust into a position where he, a major-general, was now charged with overseeing those who outranked him. This was compounded by a lack of experience in controlling formations or desert fighting and that for the ten-day period after his appointment, Auchinleck remained at Eighth Army headquarters and was effectively in command.[27]

Following Crusader, Ritchie and Auchinleck plannedOperation Acrobat,an attack to capture the remainder of Italian Libya,Tripolitania(potentially in conjunction with an Allied landing inFrench Morocco). In late January 1942, the Axis forces counterattacked. Ritchie initially dismissed the seriousness of the Axis move and Auchinleck deemed it wiser to yield some territory while the Eighth Army continued to build its logistical base for Acrobat. The1st Armoured Divisionbore the brunt of the attack and was pushed back, while it covered the retreat of the remainder of the Eighth Army toGazalawhere it established a defensive line. In February, Lieutenant-GeneralReade Godwin-Austen,the commander XIII Corps, tendered his resignation as he believed Ritchie had ignored his advice during the retreat.[28][29]At Gazala, Ritchie planned a new offensive while supply bases were established and work was conducted to lengthen the supporting railroads into Libya. Auchinleck informed his superiors in the UK, that there was no timetable for such an attack, it would have to wait until sufficient tank strength had been established. A policy was also adopted that if forced to retreat, there would be no repeat of the siege of Tobruk. The same month, due to theJapanese entry into the warin December 1941, the 70th Infantry Division was withdrawn from the Eighth Army and sent to Asia. A warning that additional troops could be removed loomed over the army. Political pressure mounted for the Eighth Army to launch an offensive, which wouldsupport Maltaand defeat the Axis powers in Africa prior to development of any potential Japanese threat to the Middle East and the army's supply lines; supply convoys ran from the UK, around theCape of Good Hope,and then through theIndian Oceanto the Middle East.[30]

In May, an Axis attack on the Eighth Army was expected although an optimistic attitude was held that it would be repulsed, and the Italian-German defeat would allow for the capture of the remainder of Cyrenaica. TheBattle of Gazalastarted on 26 May and resulted in a defeat for the Eighth Army. This included theAxis capture of Tobrukand 32,000 men (following a last-minute change in plans and the establishment of a garrison that included the2nd South African Infantry Division) and the Eighth Army was forced to retreat.[31]Carver argued that Ritchie was not responsible for the loss of the battle, that was shouldered by his subordinates "for the dilatory fashion in which they exercised command".[32]Niall Barr, who wrote about the desert fighting in 1942, stated that Richie was too slow to react at key moments and that his "passivity doomedBir Hakeimto slow strangulation and capture ", which contributed to the defeat.[33]The official history explained this was the result of Auchinleck's influence over the Eighth Army and Ritchie. The latter, with no experience in desert warfare or command, retained the mentality of his prior positions rather than asserting his own authority and consulted with Auchinleck before taking action.[34]This position is echoed by David French, who noted that Richie's subordinates believed Auchinleck held sway, that their orders came directly from Auchinleck without Richie making changes based on local conditions; Ritchie held lengthy conferences that did not deliver precise instructions.[35]The Eighth Army retreated into Egypt with the intent to rebuild. Barr noted that this could have worked, had the Italian-German forces maintained their strategy ofOperation Herkules,the capture of Malta.GeneralleutnantErwin Rommel,commander of thePanzer Army Africa,made the decision to pursue the Eighth Army, which turned the retreat into a rout and made any attempt to fight a delaying battle on the frontier impossible. As the army retreated further, Ritchie was determined to fight the final battle of the campaign at Mersa Matruh.[33]

Retreat into Egypt

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Auchinleck, commander-in-chief Middle East Command, who eventually took over direct command of Eighth Army in 1942

On 25 June, Auchinleck decided to take direct control of the Eighth Army; a move that was supported by Churchill, who had called for such a change before Gazala. This also saw the rise in prominence of Major-GeneralEric Dorman-Smith,Auchinleck's Middle East Command chief of staff.[36][a]While Auchinleck and Dorman-Smith had a close working relationship and understood one another, the latter held an unofficial position within the Eighth Army. He produced battle plans that Auchinleck used but was under no responsibility to inform other members of the headquarters of these ideas. Auchinleck froze out members of the army's headquarters in favour of Dorman-Smith, resulting in confusion and animosity within the headquarters and with other officers.[37]

Auchinleck decided that a final battle would not take place at Mersa Matruh and ordered the reorganisation of the Eighth Army's divisions. He wanted them split between forward and rear elements. The former would contain one infantry brigade and all of the divisional artillery. They were to be mobile enough to allow independent operations back and forth across the desert, while the rear element would contain the remainder of the infantry that could not be motorised and would take up static positions. This was initially intended to be along the Libyan–Egyptian frontier, before they were directed to El Alamein to dig-in.Ian Playfair,the author of the official history, highlighted that British doctrine stated that during a retreat, a running battle was to be avoided and thus Auchinleck's changes – in the midst of a retreat and fighting – went against establish practice. Lieutenant-GeneralBernard Freyberg,commander of the2nd New Zealand Division,was able to resist Auchinleck's desired changes as his division was politically protected; any change required the consent of the New Zealand government.[38][b]

On 14 June, X Corps was ordered from Syria to reinforce the Eighth Army. It assembled near Mersa Matruh on 22 June and handed over the tanks of the8th Armoured Brigadeto the 1st Armoured Division; the brigade was sent to the canal area to rebuild. Four days later, theBattle of Mersa Matruhbegan. While there were some tactical successes, by the evening of the next day, the Eighth Army started to withdraw. Due to communication breakdowns and tactical changes, the New Zealand Division was surrounded and had to fight its way out. X Corps was out of radio contact and were not informed of the withdrawal until 28 June, when they were able to escape although due to the loss of equipment and unit cohesion its divisions were in need of rest and refitting following the battle.[36][40]

The battles of El Alamein

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By 30 June, the vanguard of the Axis forces made contact with the Eighth Army at El Alamein. This new position offered a stronger defensive position, with its northern flank protected by the Mediterranean coast and by theQattara Depressionimpassable salt marshes 40 mi (64 km) inland. While preliminary defensive work had taken place, which included the creation of a water pipeline and the laying of minefields, it was not until the arrival of the bulk of the Eighth Army that major improvements were made. While Auchinleck intended to stop the Axis offensive here, contingency plans were drawn up to conduct a fighting withdrawal to the Suez Canal. Ascorched earthpolicy was considered and dismissed but a list of targets to be destroyed in the event of a retreat was established. These included communication, power, transport and storage facilities, as well as oil installations and supplies. Flooding of theNile deltawas also considered, as a last resort and after a position beyond the Suez Canal had been established. Over the course of July, the Eighth Army fought theFirst Battle of El Alameinduring which the Axis attacks were halted but Auchinleck's counter-attacks were also stopped. The campaign official history noted that following the final failed counter-attack, "Auchinleck then decided that he must make a long pause to rest, reorganize, and re-train his sadly battered army".[41]In late July, Auchinleck appointed BrigadierFreddie de Guingandas the army chief of staff.[42]

Montgomery during the Second Battle of El Alamein

The fighting in North Africa had caused concern with the British public and in the United States where Churchill had just visited to conduct theSecond Washington Conference.This meeting finalized Allied policy for the following two years, there would be noOperation Sledgehammera landing in German-occupied France andOperation Torch,a landing inFrench North Africa,was authorized to be conducted before the end of 1942.Case Bluethe German advance intoCaucasusas well as theJapanese threatinfluenced Auchinleck's thinking on the disposition of his theatre-wide forces, including the Eighth Army. TheChief of the Imperial General Staff,GeneralAlan Brookeand Churchill arrived in Egypt in July, en route toMoscow.They emphasised the need to defeat the Axis forces in Egypt and Libya, as this would allow troops to be transferred elsewhere in the Middle East if German or Japanese forces prevailed on the other fronts. In a private meeting between Auchinleck, Dorman-Smith and Churchill, Auchinleck stated a new offensive was not possible until at least September and overruled suggestions of immediate small-scale attacks. After visits to several Eighth Army divisions and meetings with various high-ranking officers, Churchill decided to make changes on 6 August. This included replacing Auchinleck with GeneralHarold Alexanderas commander-in-chief of Middle East Command, Dorman-Smith being sent back to Britain and the decision to appoint a new Eighth Army commander. Brooke suggested Lieutenant-GeneralBernard Montgomery,but Churchill preferred Lieutenant-GeneralWilliam Gott,who had been in action from the start of theWestern Desert campaign.On the following day, Gott was killed after his aircraft was shot down while travelling to Cairo. Barr and Playfair both argue that Gott was worn out from the prolonged campaign and would not have been the person to rejuvenate the Eighth Army. Montgomery arrived and assumed command on 15 August. Alexander and Montgomery made sweeping changes to commands, reversed Auchinleck's changes to the divisions, and took action to rebuild the morale of the troops. The various changes were dubbed the "fortnight of confusion" by Dorman-Smith.[43][42]

Posed action photo of British soldiers, portraying an attack during the battle.

Barr highlighted that the "fortnight of confusion" has generally been overstated and the Eighth Army was rather unscathed by the command changes. While it was a political necessity for Montgomery to distance himself from his predecessors, planning that Auchinleck, Dorman-Smith, Gott and de Guingand (who retained his position) had developed for defensive and offensive operations were retained and laid the groundwork for the following two battles at el Alamein.[42]To address morale, Montgomery made a determined and deliberate effort to appeal to the troops. He deliveredpep talksto groups of soldiers, was open to discuss policy with therank and fileand used these opportunities to disperse theRommel myth.[44]In August, the Eighth Army established its first medical center for soldiers suffering frombattle exhaustion,where they could rest for short periods.[45]Churchill returned to Egypt in late August, following the Moscow conference and spent two days with the Eighth Army culminating with his report that there had been "a complete change of atmosphere" within the army.[46]At the end of August and stretching into September, the Eighth Army defeated the next Axis offensive, theBattle of Alam el Halfa.This was followed, in November, by the Eighth Army's offensive, theSecond Battle of El Alameinthat resulted in the Axis defeat and a pursuit across Libya to Tunisia.[47]

Tunisia

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After the chase across Libya, the Eighth Army engaged in theBattle of the Mareth Lineon theTunisianborder in February 1943, where it then came under the control of18th Army Group.The army outflanked the Mareth defences in March 1943 and after further fighting alongside theFirst Army,the other 18th Army Group component, which had been conducting theTunisian campaignsince November 1942, theAxis forcesin North Africa surrendered in May 1943.[48]

Italy

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HM King George VIrides with General Montgomery in a staff car between lines of cheering troops during his first visit to Tripoli, 21 June 1943.

The Eighth Army then participated in theItalian Campaignwhich began with theAllied invasion of the island of Sicily,code-named Operation Husky. When the Allies subsequentlyinvaded mainland Italy,elements of the Eighth Army landed in the 'toe' of Italy inOperation Baytownand atTarantoinOperation Slapstick.After linking its left flank with theU.S. Fifth Army,led byGeneral Mark W. Clark,which hadlanded at Salernoon the west coast of Italy south of Naples, the Eighth Army continued fighting its way up Italy on the eastern flank of the Allied forces. Together these two armies made up theAllied Armies in Italy(later redesigned15th Army Group), underGeneralSir Harold Alexander.[49]

Tanks of theCounty of London Yeomanry,part of theBritish 4th Armoured Brigade,of the Eighth Army in the village ofBelpassonear Catania in Sicily, with local children on board, August 1943.[50][51]

At the end of 1943, General Montgomery was transferred to Britain to begin preparations forOperation Overlord.Command of the Eighth Army was given to Lieutenant-GeneralOliver Leese,previously the commander of XXX Corps, which was being returned to England.[52]

Following three unsuccessful attempts in early 1944 by the U.S. Fifth Army to break through the German defensive positions known to the Allies as theWinter Line,the Eighth Army was covertly switched from theAdriaticcoast in April 1944 to concentrate all forces, except theV Corps,on the western side of theApennine Mountainsalongside the U.S. Fifth Army in order to mount a major offensive with them. This fourthBattle of Monte Cassinowas successful with the Eighth Army breaking into central Italy and the Fifth Army enteringRomein early June.[53]

Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese, GOC Eighth Army, and other officers ride on a captured German PzKpfw V Panther tank during a display of enemy equipment, 2 June 1944.

After the Allied capture of Rome, the Eighth Army continued the fight northwards through central Italy to captureFlorence.The end of the summer campaign found Allied forces butting up against theGothic Line.The Eighth Army returned to the Adriatic coast and succeeded in forcing the Gothic line defences, but ultimately the Allied forces could not break into the Po valley before the onset of winter forced an end to serious offensive operations. During October, Leese was reassigned toSouth East Asia Command,and Lieutenant-GeneralSir Richard L. McCreery,who had previously commanded X Corps, replaced him.[54]

Thefinal offensive in Italysaw the Eighth Army back in action. Working in conjunction with the U.S. Fifth Army, now commanded byLucian K. Truscott,on its left flank, it cut off and destroyed, (during April), large parts of the opposing Army Group C defendingBolognaand then made a rapid advance through northeast Italy and intoAustria.Problems occurred where British andYugoslavianforces met.Josip Broz Tito's forces were intent on securing control of the area ofVenezia Giulia.They arrived before British forces and were very active in trying to prevent the establishment of military government in the manner that had applied to most of the rest of Italy. They even went as far as to restrict supplies through to the British zone of occupation in Austria and tried to take over part of that country as well. On 2 May 1945, the 2nd New Zealand Division of the Eighth Army liberatedTrieste,and that same day, the Yugoslav Fourth Army, together with Slovene 9th Corpus NOV entered the town. During the fighting on the Italian Front the Eighth Army had, from 3 September 1943 until 2 May 1945, suffered 123,254 casualties.[55]

Aftermath

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At the end of the war, the army moved into Austria and became part of theAllied-occupation force.On 29 July 1945, the army was disbanded and its forces were used to form the commandBritish Troops Austria.The new command maintained the gold crusader cross insignia of the Eighth Army.[14][56]

General officer commanding

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See also:General officer commanding
General officer commanding
No. Appointment date Rank General officer commanding Source(s)
1 24 September 1941 Lieutenant-General Alan Cunningham [57]
2 26 November 1941 Lieutenant-General(Acting) Neil Ritchie [58]
3 25 June 1942 General Sir Claude Auchinleck [34]
4 15 August 1942 Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery [59]
5 30 December 1943 Lieutenant-General Oliver Leese [60]
6 1 October 1944 Lieutenant-General Richard McCreery [61]

Veterans

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After the war, veterans from the Eighth Army organized Annual Reunions at theRoyal Albert Hall.Then, in the late 1970s, the Eighth Army Veterans Association was formed. At the height of its membership, there were over 35 branches, with a particular strength in the North West of the UK.[62]

Order of battle

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See also

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Notes

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Footnotes

  1. ^On assuming control of the army, Auchinleck suggested that GeneralHarold Alexanderreplace him as commander-in-chief of Middle East Command. This suggestion was rejected to avoid further political turmoil stemming from the defeat of the Eighth Army.[36]
  2. ^The division had its transport deficiencies made up by removing vehicles from the10th Indian Infantry Division.This allowed two brigades to be moved to the front, after the division's transfer from Syria. The third brigade, as the result of a lack of transport, was left at El Alamein.[39]

Citations

  1. ^Jeffery 1984,p. 110.
  2. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 1–3.
  3. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 6–8.
  4. ^Gibbs 1976,pp. 484–486.
  5. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 100, 208–211.
  6. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 362–366, 371–376, 289.
  7. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 19–41.
  8. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 159–162.
  9. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 163, 167–173.
  10. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 253–254.
  11. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 24–25.
  12. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 1, 403.
  13. ^Warner 2006,p. 99.
  14. ^ab"Badge, Formation, 8th Army".Imperial War Museum.Retrieved13 February2022.
  15. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 97, 104;Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 97, 104, 162, 170–173, 365;Warner 2006,p. 99.
  16. ^abPlayfair et al. 2004,p. 1.
  17. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 303–304, 316, 365.
  18. ^abPlayfair et al. 2004,pp. 1–2.
  19. ^Forty 2014,p. 15.
  20. ^Neillands 2005,p. 13.
  21. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 5–6, 10.
  22. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 29–30, 33, 38, 97.
  23. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 59–61.
  24. ^Warner 2006,p. 109.
  25. ^McGilvray 2020,pp. 101–102.
  26. ^Carver 2005,p. 271.
  27. ^Neillands 2005,p. 86.
  28. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 140–147, 151–152.
  29. ^Mackenzie 1951,pp. 554–555.
  30. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 197–204, 215.
  31. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 216, 223, 274.
  32. ^Carver 2002,p. 104.
  33. ^abBarr 2004,Chapter 1: War in the Desert.
  34. ^abPlayfair et al. 2004,p. 285.
  35. ^French 2001,pp. 229–230.
  36. ^abcBarr 2004,Chapter 2: The Swing of the Pendulum.
  37. ^Barr 2004,Chapter 3: The Armies at El Alamein.
  38. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 285–287.
  39. ^Playfair et al. 2004,p. 287.
  40. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 281, 288–295.
  41. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 333–335.
  42. ^abcBarr 2004,Chapter 11: Interregnum.
  43. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 361–365, 367–370.
  44. ^French 2001,p. 150.
  45. ^French 2001,p. 140.
  46. ^Playfair et al. 2004,p. 370.
  47. ^Green, Major Dennis C. (1984).Historical Battle Analysis, El Alamein and the Principles of War(PDF).p. 20.Archived(PDF)from the original on 23 October 2021.{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help)
  48. ^Walker 2006, p. 193
  49. ^Mead p. 44
  50. ^"THE BRITISH ARMY IN SICILY, AUGUST 1943".Imperial War Museums.Retrieved13 September2020.
  51. ^"Quei bambini sul carro armato – la Repubblica.it".Archivio – la Repubblica.it(in Italian). 11 June 2017.Retrieved13 September2020.
  52. ^"The Commander of the 8th Army in Italy, Lieutenant-General Oliver Leese, Italy, 30 April 1944".Imperial War Museum.Retrieved17 March2019.
  53. ^"1944: Celebrations as Rome is liberated".BBC. 5 June 1944.Retrieved17 March2019.
  54. ^"McCreery, Sir Richard Loudon (1898-1967), General".Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives. Archived fromthe originalon 31 July 2007.Retrieved17 March2019.
  55. ^Brayley, Martin (2002).The British Army 1939–45 (2): Middle East & Mediterranean.Osprey.ISBN978-1841762371.
  56. ^"The Eighth Army Disbanded: From Alamein to the Alps".The Times.No. 50207. 30 July 1945.
  57. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 316, 365.
  58. ^Playfair et al. 2004,pp. 60–61.
  59. ^Playfair et al. 2004,p. 396.
  60. ^Molony et al. 2004,p. 510.
  61. ^Jackson & Gleave 2004,p. 355.
  62. ^Eighth Army Veterans (City of Manchester)Archived21 June 2006 at theWayback Machine,accessed October 2012.

References

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  • Carver, Michael(2005) [1976].The Warlords.Barnsley: Pen & Sword.ISBN978-1-47380-042-7.
  • Carver, Michael(2002) [1986].Dilemmas of the Desert War: The Libyan Campaign 1940–1942.Staplehurst, Kent: Spellmount Limited.ISBN978-1-86227-153-1.
  • Forty, George (2014).Desert Rats at War: North Africa, Italy, Northwest Europe.Not identified: Air Sea Media.ISBN978-0-95769-155-1.
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  • Gibbs, N. H.(1976).Grand Strategy.History of the Second World War. Vol. I. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.ISBN978-0-116-30181-9.
  • Jackson, William;et al. (2004) [1988].The Mediterranean and Middle East: Victory in the Mediterranean, Part II – June to October 1944.History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series. Vol. VI. London: Naval & Military Press.ISBN978-1-84574-071-9.
  • Jeffery, Keith(1984).The British Army and the Crisis of Empire, 1918-22.Manchester: Manchester University Press.ISBN978-0-71901-717-9.
  • Mackenzie, Compton(1951).Eastern Epic: September 1939 – March 1943 Defence.Vol. I. London:Chatto & Windus.OCLC59637091.
  • McGilvray, Evan (2020).Field Marshal Claude Auchinleck.Barnsley: Pen & Sword.ISBN978-1-52671-610-1.
  • Mead, Richard (2007).Churchill's Lions: a biographical guide to the key British generals of World War II.Stroud (UK): Spellmount.ISBN978-1-86227-431-0.
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  • Moorehead, Alan (1967).The March to Tunis: The North African War 1940–1943.New York: Harper and Row.
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