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Bycatch

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Bycatch(orby-catch), in thefishing industry,is afishor other marine species that is caught unintentionally while fishing for specific species or sizes of wildlife. Bycatch is either the wrong species, the wrong sex, or is undersized orjuvenilesof the target species. The term "bycatch" is also sometimes used for untargeted catch in other forms of animal harvesting or collecting. Non-marinespecies (freshwater fishnotsaltwater fish) that are caught (either intentionally or unintentionally) but regarded as generally "undesirable" are referred to asrough fish(mainly US) orcoarse fish(mainly UK).

Shark entangled in a net on board a fishing vessel
Bycatch of unwanted species in commercial fisheries

In 1997, theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) defined bycatch as "total fishingmortality,excluding that accounted directly by the retained catch of target species ".[1]Bycatch contributes to fishery decline and is a mechanism ofoverfishingfor unintentional catch.[2]

The average annual bycatch rate ofpinnipedsandcetaceansin the US from 1990 to 1999 was estimated at 6215 animals with astandard errorof 448.[3]

Bycatch issues originated with the "mortality of dolphins in tuna nets in the 1960s".[4]

There are at least four different ways the word "bycatch" is used in fisheries:[5]

  • Catch which is retained and sold but which is not the target species for the fishery[citation needed]
  • Species/sizes/sexes of fish whichfishersdiscard[6]
  • Non-target fish, whether retained and sold or discarded[7]
  • Unwantedinvertebratespecies, such asechinodermsand non-commercialcrustaceans,and various vulnerable species groups, including seabirds, sea turtles, marine mammals and elasmobranchs (sharks and their relatives).

Additionally, the term "deliberate bycatch" is used to refer to bycatch as a source ofillegal wildlife trade(IWT) in several areas throughout world.[8]

There are several tools to estimate bycatch limits—the maximum number of animals that could be sustainably removed from a population impacted by bycatch. These include the 'potential biological removal' (PBR) and the 'sustainable anthropogenic mortality in stochastic environments' (SAMSE), which incorporatesstochasticfactors to determine sustainable limits to bycatch and other human-caused mortality of wildlife.[9]

Examples

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Recreational fishing

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Given the popularity of recreational fishing throughout the world, a small local study in the US in 2013 suggested that discards may be an important unmonitored source of fish mortality.[10]

Shrimp trawling

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Double-rigged shrimptrawlerhauling innets
Shrimpbycatch

The highest rates ofincidental catchof non-target species are associated with tropicalshrimptrawling.In 1997, theFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO) documented the estimated bycatch anddiscardlevels from shrimp fisheries around the world. They found discard rates (bycatch to catch ratios) as high as 20:1 with a world average of 5.7:1.[11]

Shrimp trawl fisheries catch two percent of the world total catch of all fish by weight, but produce more than one-third of the world total bycatch. US shrimp trawlers produce bycatch ratios between 3:1 (3 bycatch:1 shrimp) and 15:1 (15 bycatch:1 shrimp).[4]

Trawl netsin general, and shrimp trawls in particular, have been identified as sources of mortality forcetaceanandfinfishspecies.[12]When bycatch is discarded (returned to the sea), it is often dead or dying.[13]

Tropical shrimp trawlers often make trips of several months without coming to port. A typical haul may last four hours after which the net is pulled in. Just before it is pulled on board the net is washed by zigzagging at full speed. The contents are then dumped on deck and are sorted. An average of 5.7:1 means that for everykilogramof shrimp there are 5.7 kg of bycatch. In tropical inshore waters the bycatch usually consists of small fish. The shrimps are frozen and stored on board; the bycatch is discarded.[14]

Recent sampling in the South Atlanticrock shrimpfishery found 166 species of finfish, 37crustaceanspecies, and 29 other species ofinvertebrateamong the bycatch in the trawls.[12]Another sampling of the same fishery over a two-year period found that rock shrimp amounted to only 10% of total catch weight. Iridescent swimming crab, dusky flounder, inshorelizardfish,spot,brown shrimp,longspine swimming crabs, and other bycatch made up the rest.[12]

Despite the use ofbycatch reduction devices,the shrimp fishery in the Gulf of Mexico removes about 25–45 millionred snapperannually as bycatch, nearly one-half the amount taken in recreational and commercial snapper fisheries.[15][16]

Cetacean

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Main article:Cetacean bycatch
Group ofFraser's dolphins

Cetaceans,such asdolphins,porpoises,andwhales,can be seriously affected by entanglement infishing netsandlines,or direct capture byhooksor intrawl nets.Cetacean bycatch is increasing in intensity and frequency.[17]In some fisheries, cetaceans are captured as bycatch but then retained because of their value asfoodorbait.[18]In this fashion, cetaceans can become a target of fisheries.

ADall's porpoisecaught in a fishing net

One example of bycatch is dolphins caught intunanets. As dolphins aremammalsand do not havegills,they may drown while stuck in nets underwater. This bycatch issue has been one of the reasons of the growingecolabellingindustry, where fish producers mark their packagings with disclaimers such as "dolphin friendly" to reassure buyers. However, "dolphin friendly" does not mean that dolphins were not killed in the production of a particular tin of tuna, but that the fleet which caught the tuna did notspecificallytarget a feedingpodof dolphins, but relied on other methods to spot tuna schools.[citation needed] The bycatch of theCaspian sealmay be recognized as the one of the biggest entanglements of pinnipeds as bycatch in the world[19][20]

Albatross

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See also:Longline fishing
Black-browed albatrosshooked on a long-line

Of the 22albatrossspecies recognised by IUCN on theirRed List,15 arethreatened with extinction,six species are considered asNear Threatened,and only one ofLeast Concern.[21]Two species, theTristan albatrossand thewaved albatross,are considered asCritically Endangered.[21]One of the main threats is commerciallongline fishing,[22]because albatrosses and otherseabirdswhich readily feed onoffalare attracted to the set bait, after which they become hooked on the lines and drown. An estimated 100,000 albatross per year are killed in this fashion. Unregulatedpirate fisheriesexacerbate the problem.

A research study examined the impact of illegallongline fishingvessels on albatrosses, by usingenvironmental criminologyas a guiding theoretical framework.[23]The results indicated that potentially illegal longline fishing activities are highly concentrated in areas of illegally-caught fish species, and the risk to bycatch albatrosses is significantly higher in areas where these illegal longline fishing vessels operate.[23]These findings provide strong grounding that illegal longline fishing poses a particularly serious threat to the survival ofseabirds.

Sea turtles

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Loggerhead sea turtle

Sea turtles,already critically endangered, have been killed in large numbers in shrimp trawl nets. Estimates indicate that thousands ofKemp's ridley,loggerhead,green,andleatherback sea turtlesare caught in shrimp trawl fisheries in theGulf of Mexicoand the USAtlanticannually[24]The speed and length of the trawl method is significant because, "for a tow duration of less than 10 minutes, the mortality rate for sea turtles is less than one percent, whereas for tows greater than sixty minutes the mortality rate rapidly increases to fifty to one hundred percent".[25]

Sea turtles can sometimes escape from the trawls. In the Gulf of Mexico, the Kemp's ridley turtles recorded most interactions, followed in order by loggerhead, green, and leatherback sea turtles. In the US Atlantic, the interactions were greatest for loggerheads, followed in order by Kemp's ridley, leatherback, and green sea turtles.[24]

Fishing gear

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Bycatch is inevitable wherever there is fishing. The incidental catch is not limited to only fish species: dolphins, sea turtles, and seabirds are also victims of bycatch. Longlines, trawls andpurse seinenets are driving factors in the endangerment of no fewer than fifteen shark species. Bycatch may also affect reproduction of populations as juveniles are also victims of bycatch. Bycatch happens most commonly with the use ofgillnetting,longlines,orbottom trawling.Longlines with bait hook attachments can potentially reach lengths of dozens of kilometres, and, along with gill nets in the water and bottom trawls sweeping the sea floor, can catch essentially everything in their path.[26]There are thousands of kilometres of nets and lines cast into the world's oceans daily. This modern fish gear is robust and invisible to the eye, making it efficient at catching fish and bycatching everything that happens to be in the way.[27]Hook-and-line fishing could limit bycatch to a certain extent as the non-target animals can be released back to the ocean fairly quickly.[26]

Mitigation

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Aturtle excluder device

Concern about bycatch has led fishers and scientists to seek ways of reducing unwanted catch.[28]There are two main approaches.

One approach is to ban fishing in areas where bycatch is unacceptably high. Such area closures can be permanent, seasonal, or for a specific period when a bycatch problem is registered. Temporary area closures are common in some bottom trawl fisheries where undersized fish or non-target species are caught unpredictably. In some cases fishers are required to relocate when a bycatch problem occurs.

The other approach is alternativefishing gear.A technically simple solution is to use nets with a larger mesh size, allowing smaller species and smaller individuals to escape. However, this usually requires replacing the existing gear. In some cases, it is possible to modify gear.Bycatch reduction devices(BRDs) and theNordmore grateare net modifications that help fish escape from shrimp nets.

Bycatch reduction devices

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BRDs allow many commercial finfish species to escape. The US government has approved BRDs that reduce finfish bycatch by 30%.Spanish mackerelandweakfishbycatch in the South Atlantic was reduced by 40%.[12]However, recent surveys suggest BRDs may be less effective than previously thought.[15]A rock shrimp fishery off Florida found the devices failed to exclude 166 species of fish, 37 crustacean species, and 29 species of other invertebrates.[12]

A pulsed electric field-basedsharkandraybycatch mitigation device, SharkGuard, was reported by 2022 study to have reduced bycatch of blue shark by 91% and of stingrays by 71% with commercial fishing gear in a French longline tuna fishery in the Mediterranean.[29][30]

Turtle excluder devices

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In 1978, theNational Marine Fisheries Service(NMFS) started to developturtle excluder devices(TED). A TED uses a grid which deflects turtles and other big animals, so they exit from the trawl net through an opening above the grid. US shrimp trawlers and foreign fleets which market shrimp in the US are required to use TEDs. Not all nations enforce the use of TEDs.

For the most part, when they are used, TEDs have been successful reducing sea turtle bycatch.[12][31][32]However, they are not completely effective, and some turtles are still captured.[12][24]NMFS certifies TED designs if they are 97% effective. In heavily trawled areas, the same sea turtle may pass repeatedly through TEDs.[24]Recent studies indicate recapture rates of 20% or more, but it is not clear how many turtles survive the escape process.[24]

Conservation engineering of trawl nets

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The size selectivity of trawl nets is controlled by the size of the net openings, especially in the "cod end". The larger the openings, the more easily small fish can escape. The development and testing of modifications to fishing gear to improve selectivity and decrease impact is called "conservation engineering".

Seabirdschase longlinefishing vessel

Longline fishingis controversial in some areas because of bycatch. Mitigation methods have been successfully implemented in some fisheries. These include:

  • weights to sink the lines quickly
  • streamer lines to scare birds away from baited hooks while deploying the lines
  • setting lines only at night with minimal ship lighting (to avoid attracting birds)
  • limiting fishing seasons to the southern winter (when most seabirds are not feeding young)
  • not discharging offal while setting lines.

However, gear modifications do not eliminate bycatch of many species. In March 2006, theHawaiʻilongline swordfish fishing season was closed due to excessiveloggerhead sea turtlebycatch after being open only a few months, despite using modifiedcircle hooks.

One of the mitigation methods is using streamer lines (in orange).

No discards policy

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One solution that Norway came up with to reduce bycatch is to adopt a 'no discards' policy. This means that the fishermen must keep everything they catch.[33]This policy has helped to "encourage bycatch research", which, in turn has helped "encourage behavioral changes in fishers" and "reduce the waste of life" as well.[4][33]

Seabirds

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Seabirds get entangled in longlines by flocking around vessels, this eventually leads to drowning because they try to catch baits on the hooks. Fisheries had been using "streamer lines" as a cost effective solution to mitigate this type of bycatch, and it has dramatically reduced seabird mortality. These streamer lines have bright colors and are made of polyester rope, they are positioned alongside the longlines on both sides. Their bright colors and constantly flapping of water frightens the seabirds and they fly away before reaching the baited hooks. A successful example would be the use of streamer lines in Alaskangroundfishlongline fisheries, as the deaths of seabirds declined by about 70% after the employment of these lines.[26]

Alternative to discarding

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Some fisheries retain bycatch, rather than throwing the fish back into the ocean. Sometimes bycatch is sorted and sold as food,[34]especially in Asia, Africa and Latin America, where cost of labour is cheaper. Bycatch can also be sold in frozen bags as "assorted seafood" or "seafood medley" at cheaper prices. Bycatch can be converted intofish hydrolysate(ground up fish carcasses) for use as a soil amendment inorganic agricultureor it can be used as an ingredient infish meal.InSoutheast Asiabycatch is sometimes used as a raw material for fish sauce production. Bycatch is also commonly de-boned, de-shelled, ground and blended intofish pasteor moulded into fish cakes (surimi) and sold either fresh (for domestic use) or frozen (for export). This is commonly the case in Asia or by Asian fisheries. Sometimes bycatch is sold tofish farmsto feed farmed fish, especially in Asia.

Non-fisheries bycatch

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The term "bycatch" is used also in contexts other than fisheries. Examples areinsect collectingwithpitfall trapsorflight interception trapsfor either financial, controlling or scientific purposes (where the bycatch may either be small vertebrates[35]or untargeted insects) and control of introduced vertebrates which have become pest species like themuskratin Europe (where the bycatch intrapsmay beEuropean minks[36]orwaterfowl).

See also

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References

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  1. ^OECD (1997) Towards sustainable fisheries: economic aspects of the management of living marine resources. OECD Paris.
  2. ^C. Michael Hogan. 2010.Overfishing.Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment.eds. Sidney Draggan and C. Cleveland. Washington DC.
  3. ^Read, Andrew J.; Drinker, Phebe; Northridge, Simon (February 2006). "Bycatch of Marine Mammals in U.S. and Global Fisheries".Conservation Biology.20(1): 163–169.Bibcode:2006ConBi..20..163R.doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00338.x.PMID16909669.S2CID157350.
  4. ^abcHall, M; Alverson, DL; Metuzals, KI (2000). "By-catch: problems and solutions".Marine Pollution Bulletin.41(1–6): 204–219.Bibcode:2000MarPB..41..204H.doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(00)00111-9.
  5. ^Alverson D L; Freeberg M K; Murawski S A; Pope J G (1994).A global assessment of fisheries bycatch and discards.Rome: FAO.
  6. ^A definition used particularly in the northeast and westernPacificand in US legislation
  7. ^Hall, M A (1996). "On bycatches".Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries.6(3): 319–352.Bibcode:1996RFBF....6..319H.doi:10.1007/BF00122585.S2CID25760363.
  8. ^Ermolin, Ilya; Svolkinas, Linas (January 2018)."Assessment of the sturgeon catches and seal bycatches in an IUU fishery in the Caspian Sea".Marine Policy.87(87): 284–290.doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2017.09.022.
  9. ^Manlik, Oliver; Lacy, Robert C.; Sherwin, William B.; Finn, Hugh; Loneragan, Neil; Allen, Simon C. (2022)."A stochastic model for estimating sustainable limits to wildlife mortality in a changing world".Conservation Biology.36(4): e13897.Bibcode:2022ConBi..36E3897M.doi:10.1111/cobi.13897.PMC9542519.PMID35122329.
  10. ^McCallum, Malcolm L.; Worley, Gina M.; Safi, Barroq; Dickens, Kris; Jones, Jason; McCallum, Jamie L."By-catch in a recreational fishery: An unmonitored source of mortality".PeerJ Preprints.doi:10.7287/peerj.preprints.120v1.
  11. ^Clucas, Ivor (1997).Discards and bycatch in shrimp trawl fisheries.FAOFisheries Circular.
  12. ^abcdefgSAFMC (2004)[full citation needed]
  13. ^Morgan, LE; Chuenpagdee, R (2003).Shifting Gears. Addressing the Collateral Impacts of Fishing Methods in U.S. Waters.
  14. ^Clucas, I.; Teutscher, F., eds. (1999).FAO/DFID Expert Consultation on Bycatch Utilization in Tropical Fisheries. Beijing (China), 21–28 September 1998.University of Greenwich, NRI. p. 333.ISBN978-0-85954-504-4.
  15. ^abGulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council (GMFMC) (2006)Scoping Document for Amendment 15 to the Shrimp FMPArchived2008-12-17 at theWayback Machine
  16. ^Gulf of Mexico Red Snapper: Assessment Summary Report(PDF).Southeast Data, Assessment, and Review (SEDAR) Stock Assessment Report of SEDAR. 2005.
  17. ^Demaster, DJ; Fowler, CW; Perry, SL; Richlen, ME (2001)."Predation and competition: the impact of fisheries on marine mammal populations over the next one hundred years".Journal of Mammalogy.82(3): 641–651.doi:10.1644/1545-1542(2001)082<0641:PACTIO>2.0.CO;2.
  18. ^Read AJ, Drinker P, Northridge S (2006). "Bycatch of marine mammals in the U.S. and global fisheries".Conservation Biology.20(1): 163–169.Bibcode:2006ConBi..20..163R.doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00338.x.PMID16909669.S2CID157350.
  19. ^Dmitrieva, Lilia; Kondakov, Andrey A.; Oleynikov, Eugeny; Kydyrmanov, Aidyn; Karamendin, Kobey; Kasimbekov, Yesbol; Baimukanov, Mirgaliy; Wilson, Susan; Goodman, Simon J. (2013)."Assessment of Caspian Seal By-Catch in an Illegal Fishery Using an Interview-Based Approach".PLOS ONE.8(6): e67074.Bibcode:2013PLoSO...867074D.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067074.PMC3694144.PMID23840590.
  20. ^Ermolin, Ilya; Svolkinas, Linas (2018)."Assessment of the sturgeon catches and seal bycatches in an IUU fishery in the Caspian Sea"(PDF).Marine Policy.87:284–290.doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2017.09.022.
  21. ^ab"BirdLife Data Zone".datazone.birdlife.org.Retrieved2022-12-28.
  22. ^Brothers NP (1991). "Albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the Japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean".Biological Conservation.55(3): 255–268.Bibcode:1991BCons..55..255B.doi:10.1016/0006-3207(91)90031-4.
  23. ^abPetrossian, Gohar A.; Pires, Stephen F.; Sosnowski, Monique; Venu, Prabha; Olah, George (2022)."Threats of Longline Fishing to Global Albatross Diversity".Animals.12(7): 887.doi:10.3390/ani12070887.ISSN2076-2615.PMC8997039.PMID35405876.This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under theCC BY 4.0license.
  24. ^abcdeEpperly, S; Avens, L; Garrison, L; Henwood, T; Hoggard, W; Mitchell, J; Nance, J; Poffenberger, J; Sasso, C; Scott-Denton, E and; Young, C (2002)."Analysis of Sea Turtle Bycatch in the Commercial Shrimp Fisheries of Southeast US Waters and the Gulf of Mexico"(PDF).NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-490.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2009-05-09.Retrieved20 December2009.
  25. ^Nada, Mohamed; Casale, Paolo (2011)."Sea turtle bycatch and consumption in Egypt threatens Mediterranean turtle populations".Oryx.45:143–149.doi:10.1017/S0030605310001286.
  26. ^abc"Effects of Bycatch from Fishing for Wild Seafood from the Seafood Watch Program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium".www.seafoodwatch.org.
  27. ^"Bycatch - Threats".World Wildlife Fund.
  28. ^Campaign for Eco-Safe TunaRetrieved 2.21.2012
  29. ^"New gadget could reduce shark bycatch by 90%".The Guardian.21 November 2022.Retrieved18 December2022.
  30. ^Doherty, Philip D.; Enever, Robert; Omeyer, Lucy C. M.; Tivenan, Lydia; Course, Grant; Pasco, Guy; Thomas, David; Sullivan, Ben; Kibel, Ben; Kibel, Pete; Godley, Brendan J. (21 November 2022)."Efficacy of a novel shark bycatch mitigation device in a tuna longline fishery".Current Biology.32(22): R1260–R1261.Bibcode:2022CBio...32R1260D.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2022.09.003.hdl:10871/132022.ISSN0960-9822.PMID36413965.
  31. ^"Final Amendment Number 13 to the Fishery Management Plan for the Shrimp Fishery of the Gulf of Mexico"(PDF).US Waters with Environmental Assessment Regulatory Impact Review, and Regulatory Flexibility Act Analysis.2005.
  32. ^Crowder, 2001[citation needed]
  33. ^abGullestad, P.; Blom, G.; Bakke, G.; Bogstad, B. (2015-04-01)."The" Discard Ban Package ": Experiences in efforts to improve the exploitation patterns in Norwegian fisheries".Marine Policy.54:1–9.doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2014.09.025.hdl:11250/273853.ISSN0308-597X.
  34. ^Engelhardt, Elizabeth,"An Oyster by Any Other Name",Southern Spaces,18 April 2011
  35. ^"Bycatch, ethics and pitfall traps".Journal of Insect Conservation.3(1): 1–3. 1999.doi:10.1023/A:1017191920328.S2CID264021128.
  36. ^Kranz A, Polednik L and Gotea V (2001)Conservation of the European Mink (Mustella lutreila) in the Danube DeltaArchived2011-09-29 at theWayback MachineBackground information and project plan.Scientific Annals of the Danube Delta Institute for Research and Development,Tulcea, 2000–2001.

Further reading

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