Wikipedia

Carob

(Redirected fromCarob bean)
"Locust bean" redirects here. For the plants known as African locust bean, seeParkia.
Not to be confused withCarib.

Thecarob(/ˈkærəb/KARR-əb;Ceratonia siliqua) is afloweringevergreen tree or shrub in theCaesalpinioideaesub-family of thelegumefamily,Fabaceae.It is widely cultivated for its ediblefruit,which takes the form ofseed pods,and as anornamental treein gardens and landscapes. The carob tree is native to theMediterranean regionand theMiddle East.[1]Portugalis the largest producer of carob, followed byItalyandMorocco.

Carob
Carob pods on the tree
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Caesalpinioideae
Genus: Ceratonia
Species:
C. siliqua
Binomial name
Ceratonia siliqua
Distribution map
✖Native range and isolated population incl. asarchaeophyte

In theMediterranean Basin,extended to the southern Atlantic coast of Portugal (i.e., theAlgarveregion) and the Atlantic northwestern Moroccan coast, carob pods were often used as animal feed and in times offamine,as "the last source of [human] food in hard times".[2]The ripe, dried, and sometimes toasted pod is often ground into carob powder, which was sometimes used as asubstituteforcocoa powder,especially in the 1970snatural food movement.[3]The powder and chips can be used as a chocolate alternative in most recipes.

The plant's seeds are used to producelocust bean gumor carob gum, a commonthickening agentused infood processing.

Description

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A leaflet of the leaf of the carob tree

The carob tree grows up to 15 metres (50 feet) tall. Thecrownis broad and semispherical, supported by a thick trunk with rough brown bark and sturdy branches. Itsleavesare 10 to 20 centimetres (4 to 8 inches) long, alternate, pinnate, and may or may not have a terminal leaflet. It is frost-tolerant to roughly −7 °C (19 °F).[citation needed]

Most carob trees aredioeciousand some arehermaphroditic,so strictly male trees do not produce fruit.[4]When the trees blossom in autumn, the flowers are small and numerous, spirally arranged along theinflorescenceaxis incatkin-likeracemesborne on spurs from old wood and even on the trunk (cauliflory); they arepollinatedby bothwindandinsects.The male flowers smell like humansemen,an odor that is caused in part byamines.[5]

Thefruitis alegume(also known commonly, but less accurately, as apod), that is elongated, compressed, straight, or curved, and thickened at the sutures. The pods take a full year to develop and ripen. When the sweet, ripe pods eventually fall to the ground, they are eaten by various mammals, such as swine, thereby dispersing the hard inner seed in the excrement.[citation needed]

The seeds of the carob tree containleucodelphinidin,a colourlessflavanolprecursor related toleucoanthocyanidins.[6]

Etymology

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Illustration ofCeratonia siliqua

The word "carob" comes fromMiddle Frenchcarobe(modern Frenchcaroube), which borrowed it fromArabicخَرُّوبٌ(kharrūb,"locust bean pod" ) and Persiankhirnub,[7]which ultimately borrowed it perhaps fromAkkadian languageharūb-orAramaicחרובאḥarrūḇā.[8]'

Ceratonia siliqua,the scientific name of the carob tree, derives from theGreekκερατωνίαkeratōnia,"carob-tree" (cf.κέραςkéras,"horn" ),[9]andLatinsiliqua"pod, carob".[10]

In English, it is also known as "St. John'sbread "[11][a]and "locust tree"[13](not to be confused withAfrican locust bean).[14]The latter designation also applies toseveral other treesfrom the same family.

InYiddish,it is calledבאקסערbokser,derived from theMiddle High Germanbokshornboum"ram's horn tree" (in reference to the shape of the carob).[15]

Thecarat,aunit of massforgemstones,and ameasurement of purityfor gold, takes its name via the Arabicqīrāṭfrom the Greek name for the carob seedκεράτιον(lit. "small horn" ).[16][17][18]

Distribution and habitat

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Although cultivated extensively, carob can still be foundgrowing wildineastern Mediterraneanregions, and has becomenaturalizedin thewestern Mediterranean.[19]: 20 

The tree is typical in the southernPortugueseregion of theAlgarve,where the tree is calledalfarrobeira,and the fruitalfarroba.It is also seen in southern and easternSpain(Spanish:algarrobo, algarroba,Catalan / Valencian / Balearic:garrofer, garrofera, garrover, garrovera), mainly in the regions ofAndalusia,Murcia,Valencia,theBalearic Islands[20]andCatalonia[21][22][23](Catalan / Valencian / Balearic:garrofer, garrofera, garrover, garrovera);Malta(Maltese:ħarruba), on theItalianislands ofSicily(Sicilian:carrua) andSardinia(Sardinian:carrubba, carruba), in SouthernCroatia(Croatian:rogač), such as on the island ofŠipan,in eastern Bulgaria (Bulgarian:рожков), and in SouthernGreece,Cyprus,as well as on manyGreek islandssuch asCreteandSamos.[citation needed]

InIsrael,theHebrewname isחרוב(translit.charuv). The commonGreekname isχαρουπιά(translit.charoupiá), orξυλοκερατιά(translit.xylokeratiá,meaning "wooden horn" ). InTurkey,it is known as "goat's horn" (Turkish:keçiboynuzu).[19][24]

A large carob tree inSardinia,Italy

The various trees known asalgarroboin Latin America (Samanea samaninCuba,Prosopis pallidainPeru,and four species ofProsopisinArgentinaandParaguay) belong to a different subfamily of theFabaceae:Mimosoideae.Early Spanish settlers named themalgarroboafter the carob tree because they also produce pods with sweet pulp.[25]

Ecology

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Ripe carob fruit pods on the tree

The carob genus,Ceratonia,belongs to the legume family,Fabaceae,and is believed to be an archaic remnant of a part of this family now generally consideredextinct.It grows well in warmtemperateandsubtropicalareas, and tolerates hot and humid coastal areas. As axerophyte(drought-resistant species), carob is well adapted to the conditions of the Mediterranean region with just 250 to 500 millimetres (10 to 20 in) of rainfall per year.[19]

Carob trees can survive long periods of drought, but to grow fruit, they need 500 to 550 millimetres (20 to 22 in) of rainfall per year.[19]They prefer well-drained, sandyloamsand are intolerant ofwaterlogging,but the deeproot systemscan adapt to a wide variety of soil conditions and are fairlysalt-tolerant(up to 3% in soil).[19]After being irrigated withsaline waterin the summer, carob trees could possibly recover during winter rainfalls.[26]In some experiments, young carob trees were capable of basicphysiologicalfunctions under high-salt conditions (40mmol NaCl/L).[26]

Not all legume species can develop asymbiotic relationshipwithrhizobiato make use ofatmospheric nitrogen.It remains unclear if carob trees have this ability: Some findings suggest that it is not able to formroot noduleswith rhizobia,[19]while in another more recent study, trees have been identified with nodules containingbacteriabelieved to be from the genusRhizobium.[27]However, a study measuring the15N-signal (isotopic signature)in the tissue of the carob tree did not support the theory that carob trees naturally use atmospheric nitrogen.[28]

Cultivation

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The vegetative propagation of carob is naturally restricted due to its low adventitious rooting potential. Therefore,graftingandair-layeringmay prove to be more effective methods of asexual propagation.[29]Seeds are commonly used as the propagation medium. The sowing occurs inpot nurseriesin early spring and the cooling- and drying-sensitive seedlings are then transplanted to the field in the next year after the last frost. Carob trees enter slowly into production phase. Where in areas with favorable growing conditions, the cropping starts 3–4 years after budding, with the nonbearing period requiring up to 8 years in regions with marginal soils. Full bearing of the trees occurs mostly at a tree-age of 20–25 years when the yield stabilizes.[19]The orchards are traditionally planted in low densities of 25–45 trees perhectare(10 to 20/acre).Hermaphroditicor male trees, which produce fewer or no pods, respectively, are usually planted in lower densities in the orchards aspollenizers.[citation needed]

Intercroppingwith other tree species is widely spread. Not much cultivation management is required. Only light pruning and occasional tilling to reduce weeds is necessary. Nitrogen-fertilizing of the plants has been shown to have positive impacts on yield performance.[19]Although it is native to moderately dry climates, two or three summers' irrigation greatly aid the development, hasten the fruiting, and increase the yield of a carob tree.[30]

Harvest and post-harvest treatment

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The most labour-intensive part of carob cultivation is harvesting, which is often done by knocking the fruit down with a long stick and gathering them together with the help of laid-out nets. This is a delicate task because the trees are flowering at the same time and care has to be taken not to damage the flowers and the next year's crop. The literature recommends research to get the fruit to ripen more uniformly or also for cultivars which can be mechanically harvested (by shaking).[19]

After harvest, carob pods have a moisture content of 10–20% and should be dried down to a moisture content of 8% so the pods do not rot. Further processing separates the kernels (seeds) from the pulp. This process is called kibbling and results in seeds and pieces of carob pods (kibbles). Processing of the pulp includes grinding for animal feed production or roasting and milling for human food industry. The seeds have to be peeled which happens with acid or through roasting. Then theendospermand the embryo are separated for different uses.[19]

Pests and diseases

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Few pests are known to cause severe damage in carob orchards, so they have traditionally not been treated withpesticides.Some generalist pests such as the larvae of the leopard moth (Zeuzera pyrinaL.), the dried fruit moth (Cadra calidella), small rodents such as rats (Rattusspp.) and gophers (Pitymysspp.) can cause damage occasionally in some regions. Only some cultivars are severely susceptible tomildewdisease (Oidium ceratoniaeC.). One pest directly associated with carob is the larva of the carob moth (Myelois ceratoniaeZ.), which can cause extensive postharvest damage.[19]

Cadra calidellaattack carob crops before harvest and infest products in stores. This moth, prevalent in Cyprus, will often infest the country's carob stores. Research has been conducted to understand the physiology of the moth, in order to gain insight on how to monitor moth reproduction and lower their survival rates, such as through temperature control,pheromone traps,orparasitoidtraps.[31]

Production

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In 2022, world production of carob (as locust beans) was estimated to be 56,423tonnes,[32]although not all countries known to grow carob reported their results to theUN Food and Agriculture Organization.Production amounts forTurkeyandMoroccoaccounted for nearly all the world total reported in 2022.[32]

Cultivars and breeding aims

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Most of the roughly 50 known cultivars[19]are of unknown origin and only regionally distributed. The cultivars show high genetic and therefore morphological and agronomical variation.[19]No conventional breeding by controlled crossing has been reported, but selection from orchards or wild populations has been done. Domesticated carobs (C. s.var.edulis) can be distinguished from their wild relatives (C. s.var.silvestris) by some fruit-yielding traits such as building of greater beans, more pulp, and higher sugar contents. Also, genetic adaptation of some varieties to the climatic requirements of their growing regions has occurred.[19]Though a partially successful breaking of thedioecyhappened, the yield ofhermaphroditetrees still cannot compete with that of female plants, as their pod-bearing properties are worse.[33]Future breeding would be focused on processing-quality aspects, as well as on properties for better mechanization of harvest or better-yielding hermaphroditic plants. The use of modern breeding techniques is restricted due to lowpolymorphismformolecular markers.[19]

Uses

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Food

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Carob sweets
Carob cookies with carob chips are similar tochocolate chip cookies.
Carobcandythat looks like chocolate

Carob products consumed by humans come from the dried, sometimes roasted,pod,which has two main parts: thepulpaccounts for 90% and theseeds10% by weight.[19][34]Carob pulp is sold either asflouror "chunks".[34]The flour of the carobembryo(seed) can also be used for human and animal nutrition,[19]but the seed is often separated before makingcarob powder(see section onlocust bean gumbelow).

Carob pods are mildly sweet on their own (being roughly one third to one half sugar by dry weight), so they are used in powdered, chip or syrup form as an ingredient incakesandcookies,sometimes as a substitute forchocolatein recipes because of the color, texture, and taste of carob. InMalta,atraditionalsweetcalledkaramelli tal-harruband eaten during theChristian holidaysofLentandGood Fridayis made from carob pods.[35]Dried carob fruit is traditionally eaten on theJewish holidayofTu Bishvat.[36]

Carob powder

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Carob powder (carob pulp flour[37]) is made of roasted, then finely ground, carob pod pulp.[38][39][40][41]

Locust bean gum

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Locust bean gum is produced from theendosperm,which accounts for 42–46% of the carob seed, and is rich ingalactomannans(88% of endospermdry mass). Galactomannans arehydrophilicand swell in water. Ifgalactomannansare mixed with other gelling substances, such ascarrageenan,they can be used to effectively thicken the liquid part of food. This is used extensively incanned foodfor animals in order to get the "jellied" texture.[34]

Animal feed

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Whilechocolatecontains the chemical compoundtheobrominein levels that are toxic to somemammals,carob contains none, and it also has nocaffeine,so it is sometimes used to make chocolate-like treats for dogs.[42][43][44]Carob podmealis also used as an energy-richfeed for livestock,particularly forruminants,though its hightannincontent may limit this use.[45]

Historically, carob pods were mainly used foranimal fodderin theMaltese islands,apart from times of famine or war, when they formed part of the diet of manyMaltese people.On theIberian Peninsula,carob pods were historically fed to donkeys.[citation needed]

Composition

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Maltesecarobliqueur

Thepulpof a carob pod is about 48–56%sugarsand 18%celluloseandhemicellulose.[19]Some differences in sugar (sucrose) content are seen betweenwildandcultivatedcarob trees: ~531 g/kg dry weight in cultivated varieties and ~437 g/kg in wild varieties.Fructoseandglucoselevels do not differ between cultivated and wild carob.[46]Theembryo(20-25% of seed weight) is rich in proteins (50%). The testa, orseed coat(30–33% of seed weight), contains cellulose,lignins,andtannins.[34][47]

Syrup and drinks

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Carob pods are about 1/3 to 1/2sugarby weight, and this sugar can be extracted into a syrup.[48]InMalta,a carob syrup (ġulepp tal-ħarrub) is made out of the pods. Carob syrup is also used inCrete,[49]andCyprusexports it.[50]

InEgyptandPalestine,crushed pods are heated to caramelize their sugar, then water is added and boiled for some time. The result is a cold beverage, also calledkharrub,[51][52][53]which is sold by juice shops and street vendors, especially in summer. This drink is popular duringRamadaninGaza,and in summer in Egypt.[54][53]

InLebanonthe molasses is calleddebs el kharrub(literally: molasses of the carob), but people generally shorten it todebs.The molasses has a sweet, chocolate-like flavor. It is commonly mixed withtahini(typically 75% kharrub molasses and 25% tahini). The resulting mixture is calleddebs bi tahiniand is eaten raw or with bread. The molasses is also used in certain cakes.[55]The region ofIqlim al-Kharrub,which translates to theregion of the carob,produces a significant amount of carob.[citation needed]

InCyprus,the dried and milled carob pods are left to soak in water, before being transferred into special containers out of which the carob juice gradually seeps out of and is collected. The juice is then boiled with constant stirring yielding a thick syrup known asharoupomelo.[56][57]Although this syrup is frequently sold and eaten as is,haroupomelois also used as a base for a localtoffee-like sweet snack known aspasteli.[58]Constant stirring of the carob syrup causes it to form into a black, amorphous mass which is then left to cool. The mass is then kneaded, stretched and pulled until the fair, golden color and toffee-like texture ofpasteliis obtained.[57]

Carob is used forcompote,liqueur,and syrup in Turkey, Malta, Portugal, Spain, and Sicily.[citation needed]InLibya,carob syrup (calledrub) is used as a complement toasida(made from wheat flour).[citation needed]The so-called "carob syrup" made inPeruis actually from the fruit of theProsopis nigratree.[citation needed]Because of its strong taste, carob syrup is sometimes flavored with orange or chocolate.[citation needed]InYemen,carob tree is playing a role in controlling diabetes mellitus according to Yemeni folk medicine, and diabetics consume carob pods as a juice to lower their blood sugar levels.[59]

Ornamental

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Carob tree inJerusalem

The carob tree is widely cultivated in the horticulturalnursery industryas anornamental plantforMediterranean climatesand othertemperate regionsaround the world, being especially popular in California andHawaii.The plant develops a sculpted trunk and the form of an ornamental tree after being "limbed up" as it matures, otherwise it is used as a dense and largescreening hedge.The plant is verydrought tolerantas long as one does not care about the size of the fruit harvest, so can be used inxeriscapelandscape designforgardens,parks, and public municipal and commercial landscapes.[60]

Timber

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In some areas of Greece,viz.Crete, carob wood is often used as afirewood.[61]As it makes such excellent fuel, it is sometimes even preferred over oak or olive wood.

Because the much fluted stem usually showsheart rot,carob wood is rarely used for construction timber.[62]However, it is sometimes sought for ornamental work--particularly for furniture design, as the natural shape of the trunk is well-suited to the task. Additionally, the extremely wavygrain of the woodgives carob wood exceptional resistance tosplitting;[63]thus, sections of Carobboleare suitable for chopping blocks for splitting wood.

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  • Male flowers on a carob tree in Cyprus, which emanate a strongcadaverineodor
  • Close-up of female flower on the carob tree
  • Green carob fruit pods on tree, 15 cm (6 in) long
  • Fruit of the carob tree
  • Carob pods: green (unripe) and brown (ripe)
  • Abaxial and adaxial surfaces of a leaflet from the carob tree
  • Ceratonia siliquawood – Museum specimen
  • Carob pods growing from trunk (Cauliflory)

See also

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  • Ratti,a seed from which the Indian measure unit "tola" derived

Notes

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  1. ^From the belief that the seeds and pulp were the "locusts" and "honey" eaten byJohn the Baptist[12]

References

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