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Cenozoic

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TheCenozoic(/ˌsiːnəˈzoʊ.ɪk,ˌsɛn-/SEE-nə-ZOH-ik,SEN-ə-;[1][2]lit. 'new life') is Earth's current geologicalera,representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterized by the dominance ofmammals,birds,conifers,andangiosperms(flowering plants). It is the latest of three geological eras of thePhanerozoicEon,preceded by theMesozoicandPaleozoic.The Cenozoic started with theCretaceous–Paleogene extinction event,when many species, including the non-aviandinosaurs,became extinct in an event attributed by most experts to the impact of a large asteroid or other celestial body, theChicxulub impactor.

Cenozoic
66.0 – 0Ma
Rock deposits from the Cenozoic Era (Torre Sant'Andrea,Salento,Italy)
Chronology
Etymology
Name formalityFormal
Nickname(s)Age of Mammals
Usage information
Celestial bodyEarth
Regional usageGlobal (ICS)
Time scale(s) usedICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unitEra
Stratigraphic unitErathem
Time span formalityFormal
Lower boundary definitionIridiumenriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequentK-Pg extinction event.
Lower boundary GSSPEl Kef Section,El Kef,Tunisia
36°09′13″N8°38′55″E/ 36.1537°N 8.6486°E/36.1537; 8.6486
Lower GSSP ratified1991
Upper boundary definitionN/A
Upper boundary GSSPN/A
Upper GSSP ratifiedN/A

The Cenozoic is also known as theAge of Mammalsbecause the terrestrial animals that dominated both hemispheres were mammals – theeutherians(placentals) in the Northern Hemisphere and themetatherians(marsupials,now mainly restricted toAustraliaand to some extentSouth America) in the Southern Hemisphere. The extinction of many groups allowed mammals and birds to greatly diversify so that large mammals and birds dominated life on Earth. The continents also moved into their current positions during this era.

The climate during the early Cenozoic was warmer than today, particularly during thePaleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum.However, theEocenetoOligocenetransition and theQuaternary glaciationdried and cooled Earth.

Nomenclature

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Cenozoicderives from the Greek wordskainós(καινός'new') andzōḗ(ζωή'life').[3]The name was proposed in 1840 by the British geologistJohn Phillips(1800–1874), who originally spelled itKainozoic.[4][5][6]The era is also known as theCænozoic,Caenozoic,orCainozoic(/ˌkaɪ.nəˈzoʊ.ɪk,ˌkeɪ-/).[7][8]

In name, the Cenozoic (lit. 'new life') is comparable to the preceding Mesozoic ('middle life') and Paleozoic ('old life') Eras, as well as to the Proterozoic ('earlier life') Eon.

Divisions

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The Cenozoic is divided into three periods: thePaleogene,Neogene,andQuaternary;and sevenepochs:thePaleocene,Eocene,Oligocene,Miocene,Pliocene,Pleistocene,andHolocene.The Quaternary Period was officially recognised by theInternational Commission on Stratigraphyin June 2009.[9]In 2004, theTertiary Periodwas officially replaced by the Paleogene and Neogene Periods. The common use of epochs during the Cenozoic helpspalaeontologistsbetter organise and group the many significant events that occurred during this comparatively short interval of time. Knowledge of this era is more detailed than any other era because of the relatively young, well-preserved rocks associated with it.

Paleogene

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The Paleogene spans from the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, 66 million years ago, to the dawn of the Neogene, 23.03 million years ago. It features threeepochs:thePaleocene,EoceneandOligocene.

Basilosaurus

ThePaleocene Epochlasted from 66 million to 56 million years ago. Modern placental mammals originated during this time.[10]The devastation of theK–Pg extinction eventincluded the extinction of largeherbivores,which permitted the spread of dense but usually species-poor forests.[11][12]The Early Paleocene saw the recovery of Earth. The continents began to take their modern shape, but all the continents and the subcontinent of India were separated from each other.Afro-Eurasiawas separated by theTethys Sea,and the Americas were separated by the strait of Panama, as theisthmushad not yet formed. This epoch featured a general warming trend, with jungles eventually reaching the poles. The oceans were dominated by sharks[13]as the large reptiles that had once predominated were extinct. Archaic mammals filled the world such ascreodonts(extinct carnivores, unrelated to existingCarnivora).

TheEocene Epochranged from 56 million years to 33.9 million years ago. In the Early-Eocene, species living in dense forest were unable to evolve into larger forms, as in the Paleocene. Among them were early primates, whales and horses along with many other early forms of mammals. At the top of the food chains were huge birds, such asParacrax.Carbon dioxide levels were approximately 1,400ppm.[14]The temperature was 30 degrees Celsius with little temperature gradient from pole to pole. In the Mid-Eocene, theAntarctic Circumpolar Currentbetween Australia and Antarctica formed. This disrupted ocean currents worldwide and as a result caused a global cooling effect, shrinking the jungles. This allowed mammals to grow to mammoth proportions, such as whales which, by that time, had become almost fully aquatic. Mammals likeAndrewsarchuswere at the top of the food-chain. The Late Eocene saw the rebirth of seasons, which caused the expansion of savanna-like areas, along with the evolution ofgrasses.[15][16]The end of the Eocene was marked by theEocene–Oligocene extinction event,[17][18][19]the European face of which is known as theGrande Coupure.[20][21]

TheOligocene Epochspans from 33.9 million to 23.03 million years ago. The Oligocene featured the expansion of grasslands which had led to many new species to evolve, including the first elephants, cats, dogs, marsupials and many other species still prevalent today. Many other species of plants evolved in this period too. A cooling period featuring seasonal rains was still in effect. Mammals still continued to grow larger and larger.[22]

Neogene

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The Neogene spans from 23.03 million to 2.58 million years ago. It features two epochs: the Miocene, and the Pliocene.[23]

TheMiocene Epochspans from 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago and is a period in whichgrassesspread further, dominating a large portion of the world, at the expense of forests.Kelpforests evolved, encouraging the evolution of new species, such assea otters.During this time,Perissodactylathrived, and evolved into many different varieties.Apesevolved into 30 species. TheTethys Seafinally closed with the creation of theArabian Peninsula,leaving only remnants as theBlack,Red,MediterraneanandCaspian Seas.This increased aridity. Many new plants evolved: 95% of modernseed plantsfamilies were present by the end of the Miocene.[24]

ThePliocene Epochlasted from 5.333 to 2.58 million years ago. The Pliocene featured dramatic climatic changes, which ultimately led to modern species of flora and fauna. The Mediterranean Sea dried up for several million years (because theice agesreduced sea levels, disconnecting theAtlanticfrom the Mediterranean, and evaporation rates exceeded inflow from rivers).Australopithecusevolved inAfrica,beginning the human branch. TheIsthmus of Panamaformed, and animals migrated betweenNorthandSouth Americaduring thegreat American interchange,wreaking havoc on local ecologies. Climatic changes brought:savannasthat are still continuing to spread across the world; Indianmonsoons;desertsin centralAsia;and the beginnings of theSaharadesert. The world map has not changed much since, save for changes brought about by theglaciationsof the Quaternary, such as theGreat Lakes,Hudson Bay,and theBaltic Sea.[25][26]

Quaternary

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TheQuaternaryspans from 2.58 million years ago to present day, and is the shortest geological period in thePhanerozoic Eon.It features modern animals, and dramatic changes in the climate. It is divided into two epochs: the Pleistocene and the Holocene.

Megafauna of Pleistocene Europe (mammoths,cave lions,woolly rhino,reindeer,horses)

ThePleistocenelasted from 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago. This epoch was marked byice agesas a result of the cooling trend that started in the Mid-Eocene. There were at least four separate glaciation periods marked by the advance of ice caps as far south as 40° N in mountainous areas. Meanwhile, Africa experienced a trend ofdesiccationwhich resulted in the creation of theSahara,Namib,andKalaharideserts. Many animals evolved includingmammoths,giant ground sloths,dire wolves,sabre-toothed cats, andHomo sapiens.100,000 years ago marked the end of one of the worst droughts in Africa, and led to the expansion of primitive humans. As the Pleistocene drew to a close, a major extinction wiped out much of the world's megafauna, including some of the hominid species, such asNeanderthals.All the continents were affected, but Africa to a lesser extent. It still retains many large animals, such as hippos.[27]

TheHolocenebegan 11,700 years ago and lasts to the present day. All recorded history and "theHuman history"lies within the boundaries of the Holocene Epoch.[28]Human activity is blamed for a mass extinction that began roughly 10,000 years ago, though the species becoming extinct have only been recorded since theIndustrial Revolution.This is sometimes referred to as the "Sixth Extinction".It is often cited that over 322 recorded species have become extinct due to human activity since the Industrial Revolution,[29][30]but the rate may be as high as 500 vertebrate species alone, the majority of which have occurred after 1900.[31]

Tectonics

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Geologically,the Cenozoic is the era when thecontinentsmoved into their current positions.Australia-New Guinea,having split fromPangeaduring the earlyCretaceous,drifted north and, eventually, collided withSoutheast Asia;Antarcticamoved into its current position over theSouth Pole;theAtlantic Oceanwidened and, later in the era (2.8 million years ago),South Americabecame attached toNorth Americawith theisthmus of Panama.

India collided with Asia55 to 45million years agocreating the Himalayas; Arabia collided with Eurasia, closing theTethys Oceanand creating theZagros Mountains,around35million years ago.[32]

The break-up of Gondwana inLate Cretaceousand Cenozoic times led to a shift in the river courses of various large African rivers including theCongo,Niger,Nile,Orange,LimpopoandZambezi.[33]

Climate

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In the Cretaceous, the climate was hot and humid with lush forests at the poles, there was no permanent ice and sea levels were around 300 metres higher than today. This continued for the first 10 million years of the Paleocene, culminating in thePaleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximumabout55.5million years ago.Around50million years ago,Earth entered a period of long term cooling. This was mainly due to the collision of India with Eurasia, which caused the rise of theHimalayas:the upraised rocks eroded and reacted with CO2in the air, causing a long-term reduction in the proportion of this greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Around35million years ago,permanent ice began to build up on Antarctica.[34]The cooling trend continued in theMiocene,with relatively short warmer periods. When South America became attached to North America creating theIsthmus of Panamaaround2.8million years ago,the Arctic region cooled due to the strengthening of theHumboldtandGulf Streamcurrents,[35]eventually leading to the glaciations of theQuaternary ice age,the currentinterglacialof which is theHoloceneEpoch. Recent analysis of the geomagnetic reversal frequency, oxygen isotope record, and tectonic plate subduction rate, which are indicators of the changes in the heat flux at the core mantle boundary, climate and plate tectonic activity, shows that all these changes indicate similar rhythms on million years' timescale in the Cenozoic Era occurring with the common fundamental periodicity of ~13 Myr during most of the time.[36]The levels of carbonate ions in the ocean fell over the course of the Cenozoic.[37]

Life

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Restoration ofPalaeotherium,aPaleogenerelative of horses that lived in subtropical climates of Europe during theEocene

Early in the Cenozoic, following theK-Pg event,the planet was dominated by relatively small fauna, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. From a geological perspective, it did not take long for mammals to greatly diversify in the absence of the dinosaurs that had dominated during the Mesozoic.[38]Birds also diversified rapidly; some flightless birds grew larger than humans. These species are sometimes referred to as "terror birds",and were formidable predators. Mammals came to occupy almost every availableniche(both marine andterrestrial), and some also grew very large, attaining sizes not seen in most of today's terrestrial mammals. The ranges of many Cenozoic bird clades were governed by latitude and temperature and have contracted over the course of this era as the world cooled.[39]

During the Cenozoic,mammals proliferatedfrom a few small, simple, generalised forms into a diverse collection ofterrestrial,marine,andflyinganimals, giving this period its other name, the Age of Mammals. The Cenozoic is just as much the age ofsavannas,the age of co-dependentflowering plantsandinsects,and the age of birds.[40]Grassesalso played a very important role in this era, shaping the evolution of the birds and mammals that fed on them. One group that diversified significantly in the Cenozoic as well were thesnakes.Evolving in the Cenozoic, the variety of snakes increased tremendously, resulting in manycolubrids,following the evolution of their current primary prey source, therodents.

In the earlier part of the Cenozoic, the world was dominated by thegastornithidbirds, terrestrialcrocodylianslikePristichampsus,large sharks such asOtodus,and a handful of primitive large mammal groups likeuintatheres,mesonychians,andpantodonts.But as the forests began to recede and the climate began to cool, other mammals took over.

The Cenozoic is full of mammals both strange and familiar, includingchalicotheres,creodonts,whales,primates,entelodonts,sabre-toothed cats,mastodonsandmammoths,three-toed horses,giantrhinoceroslikeParaceratherium,the rhinoceros-likebrontotheres,various bizarre groups of mammals from South America, such as the vaguely elephant-likepyrotheresand the dog-like marsupial relatives calledborhyaenidsand themonotremesand marsupials of Australia. Mammal evolution in the Cenozoic was predominantly shaped by climatic and geological processes.[41][42]

Cenozoiccalcareous nannoplanktonexperienced rapid rates of speciation and reduced species longevity, while suffering prolonged declines in diversity during the Eocene and Neogene.Diatoms,in contrast, experienced major diversification over the Eocene, especially at high latitudes, as the world's oceans cooled.[43]Diatom diversification was particularly concentrated at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. A second major pulse of diatom diversification occurred over the course of the Middle and Late Miocene.[44]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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  • Prothero, Donald R. (2006).After the Dinosaurs: The Age of Mammals.Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.ISBN978-0-253-34733-6.
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