Wikipedia

Censorship

For Wikipedia's policy concerning censorship, seeWikipedia:Wikipedia is not censored

Censorshipis the suppression ofspeech,public communication, or otherinformation.This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient".[2][3][4]Censorship can be conducted bygovernments,[5]private institutions.[6]When an individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of their own works or speech, it is referred to asself-censorship.General censorship occurs in a variety of different media, including speech, books, music, films, and other arts,the press,radio, television, and the Internet for a variety of claimed reasons includingnational security,to controlobscenity,pornography,andhate speech,to protect children or other vulnerable groups, to promote or restrict political or religious views, and to preventslanderandlibel.Specific rules and regulations regarding censorship vary betweenlegal jurisdictionsand/or private organizations.

The plastercastofDavidat theVictoria and Albert Museumhas a detachable plasterfig leafwhich is displayed nearby. Legend claims that the fig leaf was created in response toQueen Victoria's shock upon first viewing the statue's nudity and was hung on the figure prior to royal visits, using two strategically placed hooks.[1]

History

Chinese troops destroyed the statueGoddess of DemocracyinTiananmen Square in 1989,and continue to censor information about those events.[7]This statue, now known as theVictims of Communism Memorial,was recreated by Thomas Marsh inWashington, DC.
Book burning in Chilefollowing the1973 coupthat installed thePinochet regime

In 399 BC, Greek philosopher,Socrates,while defying attempts by the Athenian state to censor his philosophical teachings, was accused of collateral charges related to the corruption of Athenian youth and sentenced to death by drinking a poison,hemlock.

The details of Socrates's conviction are recorded by Plato as follows. In 399 BC, Socrates went ontrial[8]and was subsequently found guilty of both corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens and ofimpiety(asebeia,[9]"not believing in the gods of the state" ),[10]and as a punishment sentenced to death, caused by the drinking of a mixture containing hemlock.[11][12][13]

Socrates' student,Plato,is said to have advocated censorship in his essay onThe Republic,which opposed the existence of democracy. In contrast to Plato, Greek playwrightEuripides(480–406 BC) defended the true liberty of freeborn men, including the right to speak freely. In 1766,Sweden became the first country to abolish censorship by law.[14]

Rationale and criticism

Censorship has been criticized throughout history for being unfair and hindering progress. In a 1997 essay on Internet censorship, social commentator Michael Landier explains that censorship is counterproductive as it prevents the censored topic from being discussed. Landier expands his argument by claiming that those who impose censorship must consider what they censor to be true, as individuals believing themselves to be correct would welcome the opportunity to disprove those with opposing views.[15]

Censorship is often used to impose moral values on society, as in the censorship of material considered obscene. English novelistE. M. Forsterwas a staunch opponent of censoring material on the grounds that it was obscene or immoral, raising the issue of moral subjectivity and the constant changing of moral values. When the 1928 novelLady Chatterley's Loverwasput on trial in 1960,Forster wrote:[16]

Lady Chatterley's Loveris a literary work of importance...I do not think that it could be held obscene, but am in a difficulty here, for the reason that I have never been able to follow the legal definition of obscenity. The law tells me that obscenity may deprave and corrupt, but as far as I know, it offers no definition of depravity or corruption.

Proponents have sought to justify it using different rationales for various types of information censored:

  • Moral censorship is the removal of materials that areobsceneor otherwise considered morally questionable. Pornography, for example, is often censored under this rationale, especiallychild pornography,which is illegal and censored in most jurisdictions in the world.[17][18]
  • Military censorshipis the process of keepingmilitary intelligenceandtacticsconfidential and away from the enemy. This is used to counter espionage.
  • Political censorshipoccurs when governments hold back information from their citizens. This is often done to exert control over the populace and prevent free expression that might fomentrebellion.
  • Religious censorshipis the means by which any material considered objectionable by a certain religion is removed. This often involves a dominant religion forcing limitations on less prevalent ones. Alternatively, one religion may shun the works of another when they believe the content is not appropriate for their religion.
  • Corporate censorshipis the process by which editors in corporate media outlets intervene to disrupt the publishing of information that portrays their business or business partners in a negative light,[19][20]or intervene to prevent alternate offers from reaching public exposure.[21]

Types

Political

Main article:Political censorship
See also:Eastern Bloc information dissemination,Censorship in Cuba,Censorship in the People's Republic of China,andCensorship in North Korea

State secrets and prevention of attention

The daily newspaper ofWrocław,Polish People's Republic,March 20–21, 1981, with censor intervention on first and last pages – under the headlines "Co się zdarzyło w Bydgoszczy?" (What happened in Bydgoszcz?) and "Pogotowie strajkowe w całym kraju" (Country-wide strike alert). The censor had removed a section regarding the strike alert; hence the workers in the printing house blanked out an official propaganda section. The right-hand page also includes a hand-written confirmation of that decision by the localSolidarity trade union.

In wartime, explicit censorship is carried out with the intent of preventing the release of information that might be useful to an enemy. Typically it involves keeping times or locations secret, or delaying the release of information (e.g., an operational objective) until it is of no possible use to enemy forces. The moral issues here are often seen as somewhat different, as the proponents of this form of censorship argue that the release of tactical information usually presents a greater risk of casualties among one's own forces and could possibly lead to loss of the overall conflict.

DuringWorld War Iletters written by British soldiers would have to go through censorship. This consisted of officers going through letters with a black marker and crossing out anything which might compromise operational secrecy before the letter was sent.[22]TheWorld War IIcatchphrase "Loose lips sink ships"was used as a common justification to exercise official wartime censorship and encourage individual restraint when sharing potentially sensitive information.[23]

An example of "sanitization"policies comes from theUSSRunderJoseph Stalin,where publicly used photographs were often altered to remove people whom Stalin had condemned to execution. Though past photographs may have been remembered or kept, this deliberate and systematic alteration to all of history in the public mind is seen as one of the central themes ofStalinismandtotalitarianism.

Censorship is occasionally carried out to aid authorities or to protect an individual, as with some kidnappings when attention and media coverage of the victim can sometimes be seen as unhelpful.[24]

Religion

Main article:Censorship by religion
Portrayal of the burning ofWilliam Pynchon's 1650 critique on Puritanical Calvinism in Boston by thePuritan-controlled Massachusetts Bay Colony

Censorship by religion is a form of censorship wherefreedom of expressionis controlled or limited using religious authority or on the basis of the teachings of thereligion.[25]This form of censorship has a long history and is practiced in many societies and by many religions. Examples include theGalileo affair,Edict of Compiègne,theIndex Librorum Prohibitorum(list of prohibited books) and the condemnation ofSalman Rushdie's novelThe Satanic VersesbyIranianleaderAyatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.Images of the Islamic figure Muhammad are also regularly censored. In some secular countries, this is sometimes done to prevent hurting religious sentiments.[26]

Educational sources

HistoricRussiancensorship. BookNotes of my life byN.I. Grech,published in St. Petersburg 1886 by A.S. Suvorin. The censored text was replaced by dots.

The content of school textbooks is often an issue of debate, since their target audiences are young people. The termwhitewashingis commonly used to refer to revisionism aimed at glossing over difficult or questionable historical events, or a biased presentation thereof. Thereporting of military atrocities in historyis extremely controversial, as in the case ofthe Holocaust(orHolocaust denial),Bombing of Dresden,theNanking Massacreas found withJapanese history textbook controversies,theArmenian genocide,theTiananmen Square protests of 1989,and theWinter Soldier Investigationof theVietnam War.

In the context of secondary school education, the way facts and history are presented greatly influences the interpretation of contemporary thought, opinion and socialization. One argument for censoring the type of information disseminated is based on the inappropriate quality of such material for the younger public. The use of the "inappropriate" distinction is in itself controversial, as it changed heavily. A Ballantine Books version of the bookFahrenheit 451which is the version used by most school classes[27]contained approximately 75 separate edits, omissions, and changes from the original Bradbury manuscript.

In February 2006, aNational Geographiccover was censored by theNashravaran Journalistic Institute.The offending cover was about the subject ofloveand a picture of an embracing couple was hidden beneath a white sticker.[28]

Economic induced censorship

Economic induced censorship is a type of censorship enacted by economic markets to favor, and disregard, types of information. Economic induced censorship, is also caused, by market forces which privatize and establish commodification of certain information that is not accessible by the general public, primarily because of the cost associated with commodified information such as academic journals, industry reports and pay to use repositories.[29]

The concept was illustrated as a censorship pyramid[30]that was conceptualized by primarilyJulian Assange,along withAndy Müller-Maguhn,Jacob AppelbaumandJérémie Zimmermann,in theCypherpunks (book).

Self-censorship

AuthorOzzie Zehnerself-censoredthe American edition of his environmental book,Green Illusions,[31]fearingfood libel laws.
A person inPutin's Palacehas had their face and reflection obscured presumably to prevent retaliation for distributing such photos.
Main article:Self-censorship
Ithyphallic godMin,tumescence obscured

Self-censorship is the act of censoring orclassifyingone's own discourse. This is done out of fear of, or deference to, the sensibilities or preferences (actual or perceived) of others and without overt pressure from any specific party or institution of authority. Self-censorship is often practiced byfilm producers,film directors,publishers,news anchors,journalists,musicians,and other kinds ofauthorsincluding individuals who usesocial media.[32]

According to aPew Research Centerand theColumbia Journalism Reviewsurvey, "About one-quarter of the local and national journalists say they have purposely avoided newsworthy stories, while nearly as many acknowledge they have softened the tone of stories to benefit the interests of their news organizations. Fully four-in-ten (41%) admit they have engaged in either or both of these practices."[33]

Threats to media freedom have shown a significant increase in Europe in recent years, according to a study published in April 2017 by theCouncil of Europe. This results in a fear of physical or psychological violence, and the ultimate result is self-censorship by journalists.[34]

Copy, picture, and writer approval

Copy approval is the right to read and amend an article, usually an interview, before publication. Many publications refuse to give copy approval but it is increasingly becoming common practice when dealing with publicity anxious celebrities.[35]Picture approval is the right given to an individual to choose which photos will be published and which will not.Robert Redfordis well known for insisting upon picture approval.[36]Writer approval is when writers are chosen based on whether they will write flattering articles or not. Hollywood publicist Pat Kingsley is known for banning certain writers who wrote undesirably about one of her clients from interviewing any of her other clients.[citation needed]

Reverse censorship

Flooding the public, often through onlinesocial networks,with false or misleading information is sometimes called "reverse censorship". American legal scholarTim Wuhas explained that this type of information control, sometimes bystate actors,can "distort or drown out disfavored speech through the creation and dissemination offake news,the payment of fake commentators, and the deployment of propagandarobots."[37]

Soft censorship

See also:Media manipulationandIndependent media § Influences in media systems

Soft, or indirect, censorship is the practice of influencing news coverage by applying financial pressure on media companies that are deemed critical of a government or its policies and rewarding media outlets and individual journalists who are seen as friendly to the government.[38]

By media

Books

Main article:Book censorship
Nazi book burningin Berlin, May 1933

Book censorship can be enacted at the national or sub-national level, and can carry legal penalties for their infraction. Books may also be challenged at a local, community level. As a result, books can be removed from schools or libraries, although these bans do not typically extend outside of that area.

Films

Main article:Film censorship

Aside from the usual justifications of pornography andobscenity,some films are censored due to changing racial attitudes orpolitical correctnessin order to avoidethnic stereotypingand/or ethnic offense despite its historical or artistic value. One example is the still withdrawn "Censored Eleven"series of animated cartoons, which may have been innocent then, but are" incorrect "now.[39]

Film censorship is carried out by various countries. Film censorship is achieved by censoring the producer or restricting a state citizen. For example, in China the film industry censorsLGBT-related films.Filmmakers must resort to finding funds from international investors such as the "Ford Foundations" and or produce through an independent film company.[40]

Music

Main article:Censorship of music

Music censorship has been implemented by states, religions, educational systems, families, retailers and lobbying groups – and in most cases they violate international conventions of human rights.[41]

Maps

Main articles:Censorship of mapsandCartographic censorship

Censorship of maps is often employed for military purposes. For example, the technique was used in formerEast Germany,especially for the areas near the border toWest Germanyin order to make attempts of defection more difficult. Censorship of maps is also applied byGoogle Maps,where certain areas are grayed out or blacked or areas are purposely left outdated with old imagery.[42]

Art

Art is loved and feared because of its evocative power. Destroying or oppressing art can potentially justify its meaning even more.[43]

British photographer and visual artistGraham Ovenden's photos and paintings were ordered to be destroyed by a London's magistrate court in 2015 for being "indecent"[44]and their copies had been removed from the onlineTate gallery.[45]

Artworks using these four colors were banned by Israeli law in the 1980s. This ban ended in 1993.

A 1980 Israeli law forbade bannedartworkcomposed of the four colours of thePalestinian flag,[46]and Palestinians were arrested for displaying such artwork or even for carrying sliced melons with the same pattern.[47][48][49]

Cuban artist Tania Bruguera

Moath al-Alwiis a Guantanamo Bay prisoner who createsmodel shipsas an expression of art. Alwi does so with the few tools he has at his disposal such as dental floss and shampoo bottles, and he is also allowed to use a small pair of scissors with rounded edges.[50]A few of Alwi's pieces are on display at John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York. There are also other artworks on display at the College that were created by other inmates. The artwork that is being displayed might be the only way for some of the inmates to communicate with the outside. Recently things have changed though. The military has come up with a new policy that will not allow the artwork at Guantanamo Bay Military Prison to leave the prison. The artwork created by Alwi and other prisoners is now government property and can be destroyed or disposed of in whatever way the government choose, making it no longer the artist's property.[51]

Around 300 artists in Cuba are fighting for their artistic freedom due to new censorship rules Cuba's government has in place for artists. In December 2018, following the introduction of new rules that would ban music performances and artwork not authorized by the state,performance artistTania Bruguerawas detained upon arriving to Havana and released after four days.[52]

The Degenerate Art Exhibition

An example of extreme state censorship was the Nazis' requirements of using art as propaganda. Art was only allowed to be used as a political instrument to control people and failure to act in accordance with the censors was punishable by law, even fatal. TheDegenerate Art Exhibitionwas a historical instance of this, the goal of which was to advertise Nazi values and slander others.[53]

Internet

Main article:Internet censorship
Internet censorship and surveillance by country(2018)[54][55][56][57][58]
Pervasive
Substantial
Selective
Little or no
Not classified / No data

Internet censorship is control or suppression of the publishing or accessing of information onthe Internet.It may be carried out by governments or by private organizations either at the behest of the government or on their own initiative. Individuals and organizations may engage inself-censorshipon their own or due to intimidation and fear.

The issues associated with Internet censorship are similar to those for offline censorship of more traditional media. One difference is that national borders are more permeable online: residents of a country that bans certain information can find it on websites hosted outside the country. Thus censors must work to prevent access to information even though they lack physical or legal control over the websites themselves. This in turn requires the use of technical censorship methods that are unique to the Internet, such as site blocking and content filtering.[59]

Furthermore, theDomain Name System(DNS) a critical component of the Internet is dominated by centralized and few entities. The most widely used DNS root is administered by theInternet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers(ICANN).[60][61]As an administrator they have rights to shut down and seizedomain nameswhen they deem necessary to do so and at most times the direction is from governments. This has been the case withWikileaksshutdowns[62]and name seizure events such as the ones executed by theNational Intellectual Property Rights Coordination Center(IPR Center) managed by theHomeland Security Investigations(HSI).[63]This makes it easy for internet censorship by authorities as they have control over what should or should not be on the Internet. Some activists and researchers have started opting foralternative DNS roots,though the Internet Architecture Board[64](IAB) does not support these DNS root providers.

Unless the censor has total control over all Internet-connected computers, such as inNorth KoreaorCuba,total censorship of information is very difficult or impossible to achieve due to the underlying distributed technology of the Internet.Pseudonymityanddata havens(such asFreenet) protectfree speechusing technologies that guarantee material cannot be removed and prevents the identification of authors. Technologically savvy users can often find ways toaccess blocked content.Nevertheless, blocking remains an effective means of limiting access to sensitive information for most users when censors, such as those inChina,are able to devote significant resources to building and maintaining a comprehensive censorship system.[59]

Views about the feasibility and effectiveness of Internet censorship have evolved in parallel with the development of the Internet and censorship technologies:

  • A 1993Timemagazine article quotes computer scientistJohn Gillmore,one of the founders of theElectronic Frontier Foundation,as saying "The Net interprets censorship as damage and routes around it."[65]
  • In November 2007, "Father of the Internet"Vint Cerfstated that he sees government control of the Internet failing because the Web is almost entirely privately owned.[66]
  • A report of research conducted in 2007 and published in 2009 by the Beckman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University stated that: "We are confident that the [censorship circumvention] tool developers will for the most part keep ahead of the governments' blocking efforts", but also that "...we believe that less than two percent of all filtered Internet users use circumvention tools".[67]
  • In contrast, a 2011 report by researchers at theOxford Internet Institutepublished byUNESCOconcludes "... the control of information on the Internet and Web is certainly feasible, and technological advances do not therefore guarantee greater freedom of speech."[59]

ABBC World Service pollof 27,973 adults in 26 countries, including 14,306 Internet users,[68]was conducted between 30 November 2009 and 7 February 2010. The head of the polling organization felt, overall, that the poll showed that:

Despite worries about privacy and fraud, people around the world see access to the internet as their fundamental right. They think the web is a force for good, and most don't want governments to regulate it.[69]

The poll found that nearly four in five (78%) Internet users felt that the Internet had brought them greater freedom, that most Internet users (53%) felt that "the internet should never be regulated by any level of government anywhere", and almost four in five Internet users and non-users around the world felt that access to the Internet was a fundamental right (50% strongly agreed, 29% somewhat agreed, 9% somewhat disagreed, 6% strongly disagreed, and 6% gave no opinion).[70]

Social media

The rising use of social media in many nations has led to the emergence of citizens organizing protests through social media, sometimes called "Twitter Revolutions".The most notable of these social media-led protests were theArab Spring uprisings,starting in 2010. In response to the use of social media in these protests, the Tunisian government began a hack of Tunisian citizens' Facebook accounts, and reports arose of accounts being deleted.[71]

Automated systems can be used to censorsocial mediaposts, and therefore limit what citizens can say online. This most notably occurs inChina,where social media posts are automatically censored depending on content. In 2013, Harvard political science professorGary Kingled a study to determine what caused social media posts to be censored and found that posts mentioning the government were not more or less likely to be deleted if they were supportive or critical of the government. Posts mentioning collective action were more likely to be deleted than those that had not mentioned collective action.[72]Currently, social media censorship appears primarily as a way to restrict Internet users' ability to organize protests. For the Chinese government, seeing citizens unhappy with local governance is beneficial as state and national leaders can replace unpopular officials. King and his researchers were able to predict when certain officials would be removed based on the number of unfavorable social media posts.[73]

Research has proved that criticism is tolerable on social media sites, therefore it is not censored unless it has a higher chance of collective action. It is not important whether the criticism is supportive or unsupportive of the states' leaders, the main priority of censoring certain social media posts is to make sure that no big actions are being made due to something that was said on the internet. Posts that challenge the Party's political leading role in the Chinese government are more likely to be censored due to the challenges it poses to the Chinese Communist Party.[74]

In December 2022Elon Musk,owner and CEO ofTwitterreleased internal documents from the social media microblogging site to journalistsMatt Taibbi,Michael ShellenbergerandBari Weiss.The analysis of these files on Twitter, collectively called, theTwitter Files,explored the content moderation and visibility filtering carried out in collaboration with theFederal Bureau of Investigationon theHunter Biden laptop controversy.

On the platform TikTok, certain hashtags have been categorized by the platform's code and determines how viewers can or cannot interact with the content or hashtag specifically. Some shadowbanned tags include: #acab, #GayArab, #gej due to their referencing of certain social movements and LGBTQ identity. As TikTok guidelines are becoming more localized around the world, some experts believe that this could result in more censorship than before.[75]

Video games

Main articles:Video game censorshipandList of regionally censored video games

Since the early 1980s, advocates of video games have emphasized their use as anexpressive medium,arguing for their protection under the laws governingfreedom of speechand also as an educational tool. Detractors argue that video games areharmfuland therefore should besubject to legislative oversight and restrictions.Many video games have certain elements removed or edited due toregional rating standards.[76][77] For example, in the Japanese and PAL Versions ofNo More Heroes,blood splatter and gore is removed from the gameplay. Decapitation scenes are implied, but not shown. Scenes of missing body parts after having been cut off, are replaced with the same scene, but showing the body parts fully intact.[78]

Impact of surveillance

See also:Surveillance,Mass surveillance,andComputer and network surveillance

Surveillance and censorship are different. Surveillance can be performed without censorship, but it is harder to engage in censorship without some form of surveillance.[79]Even when surveillance does not lead directly to censorship, the widespread knowledge or belief that a person, their computer, or their use of the Internet is under surveillance can have a "chilling effect"and lead to self-censorship.[80]

Implementation

Censored pre-press proof of two articles fromNotícias da Amadora,aPortuguesenewspaper, 1970

The former Soviet Union maintained a particularly extensive program of state-imposed censorship. The main organ for official censorship in the Soviet Union was theChief Agency for Protection of Military and State Secretsgenerally known as theGlavlit,its Russian acronym. TheGlavlithandled censorship matters arising from domestic writings of just about any kind – even beer and vodka labels.Glavlitcensorship personnel were present in every large Soviet publishing house or newspaper; the agency employed some 70,000 censors to review information before it was disseminated by publishing houses, editorial offices, and broadcasting studios. No mass medium escapedGlavlit's control. All press agencies and radio and television stations hadGlavlitrepresentatives on their editorial staffs.[81]

Sometimes, public knowledge of the existence of a specific document is subtly suppressed, a situation resembling censorship. The authorities taking such action will justify it by declaring the work to be "subversive"or" inconvenient ". An example isMichel Foucault's 1978 textSexual Morality and the Law(later republished asThe Danger of Child Sexuality), originally published asLa loi de la pudeur[literally, "the law of decency" ]. This work defends the decriminalization ofstatutory rapeand theabolition of age of consent laws.[citation needed]

When a publisher comes under pressure to suppress a book, but has already entered into a contract with the author, they will sometimes effectively censor the book by deliberately ordering a small print run and making minimal, if any, attempts to publicize it. This practice became known in the early 2000s asprivishing(private publishing).[82]anOpenNet Initiative(ONI) classifications:[83]

By country

Main article:Censorship by country

Censorship for individual countries is measured byFreedom House (FH)Freedom of the Pressreport,[84]Reporters Without Borders (RWB)Press freedom index[85]andV-Demgovernment censorship effort index. Censorship aspects are measured by Freedom on the Net[54]andOpenNet Initiative(ONI) classifications.[83]Censorship by countrycollects information on censorship,internet censorship,press freedom,freedom of speech,andhuman rightsby country and presents it in a sortable table, together with links to articles with more information. In addition to countries, the table includes information on former countries, disputed countries, political sub-units within countries, and regional organizations.

Australia

Main articles:Censorship in AustraliaandInternet censorship in Australia

Canada

Main articles:Censorship in CanadaandBook censorship in Canada

Very little is formally censored in Canada, aside from "obscenity"(as defined in the landmark criminal case ofR v Butler) which is generally limited topornographyandchild pornographydepicting and/or advocating non-consensual sex, sexual violence, degradation, or dehumanization, in particular that which causes harm (as inR v Labaye). Most films are simply subject to classification by theBritish Columbia Film Classification Officeunder the non-profitCrown corporationby the name ofConsumer Protection BC,whose classifications are officially used by the provinces ofBritish Columbia,Saskatchewan,Ontario,andManitoba.[86]

Cuba

Main articles:Censorship in CubaandInternet censorship in Cuba

Cuban media used to be operated under the supervision of theCommunist Party'sDepartment of Revolutionary Orientation,which "develops and coordinates propaganda strategies".[87]Connection to the Internet is restricted and censored.[88]

China

Main articles:Censorship in China,Internet censorship in China,Film censorship in China,Book censorship in China,Blood censorship in China,andRadio jamming in China

ThePeople's Republic of Chinaemploys sophisticated censorship mechanisms, referred to as theGolden Shield Project,to monitor the internet. Popular search engines such asBaidualso remove politically sensitive search results.[89][90][91]

Eastern Bloc

See also:Eastern Bloc media and propaganda
Photo of Capt. Sergej Petras and Capt.Josef Buršíkfrom 1945. Buršík was stronglyagainst the invasion in 1968 to Czechoslovakia,so it was allowed to publish only the left half of the picture, Buršík was removed.

Strict censorship existed in the Eastern Bloc.[92]Throughout the bloc, the various ministries of culture held a tight rein on their writers.[93]Cultural products there reflected the propaganda needs of the state.[93]Party-approved censors exercised strict control in the early years.[94]In the Stalinist period, even the weather forecasts were changed if they suggested that the sun might not shine onMay Day.[94]UnderNicolae CeauşescuinRomania,weather reports were doctored so that the temperatures were not seen to rise above or fall below the levels which dictated that work must stop.[94]

Possession and use ofcopying machineswas tightly controlled in order to hinder the production and distribution ofsamizdat,illegalself-publishedbooks and magazines. Possession of even a single samizdat manuscript such as a book byAndrei Sinyavskywas a serious crime which might involve a visit from theKGB.Another outlet for works which did not find favor with the authorities was publishing abroad.

France

Main articles:Censorship in FranceandInternet censorship in France

Amid declining car sales in 2020, France banned a television ad by a Dutch bike company, saying the ad "unfairly discredited the automobile industry".[95]

India

Main articles:Censorship in India,Internet censorship in India,andBook censorship in India

TheConstitution of Indiaguaranteesfreedom of expression,but placescertain restrictionson content, with a view towards maintaining communal and religious harmony, given the history of communal tension in the nation.[96]According to the Information Technology Rules 2011, objectionable content includes anything that "threatens the unity, integrity, defence, security or sovereignty of India, friendly relations with foreign states or public order".[97]Notably many pornographic websites are blocked in India.

Iran

Main articles:Censorship in Iran,Internet censorship in Iran,andBook censorship in Iran

Iraq

Main articles:Censorship in IraqandInternet censorship in Iraq

Iraq underBaathistSaddam Husseinhad much the same techniques of press censorship as did Romania under Nicolae Ceauşescu but with greater potential violence.[98]

Japan

Main articles:Censorship in JapanandInternet censorship in Japan

During theGHQoccupation of Japan after WW2, any criticism of the Allies' pre-war policies, the SCAP, the Far East Military Tribunal, the inquiries against the United States and every direct and indirect references to the role played by the Allied High Command in drafting Japan's new constitution or to censorship of publications, movies, newspapers and magazines was subject to massive censorship,purges,media blackout.[99]

In the four years (September 1945–November 1949) since theCCDwas active, 200 million pieces of mail and 136 million telegrams were opened, and telephones were tapped 800,000 times. Since no criticism of the occupying forces for crimes such as the dropping of the atomic bomb, rape and robbery by US soldiers was allowed, a strict check was carried out. Those who got caught were put on a blacklist called the watchlist, and the persons and the organizations to which they belonged were investigated in detail, which made it easier to dismiss or arrest the "disturbing molecule".[100]

Malaysia

Main articles:Censorship in MalaysiaandFilm censorship in Malaysia

Under subsection 48(3) and (4) of thePenangIslamic Religious Administration Enactment 2004, non-Muslims inMalaysiaare penalized for using the following words, or to write or publish them, in any form, version or translation in any language or for use in any publicity material in any medium: "Allah", "Firman Allah", "Ulama", "Hadith", "Ibadah", "Kaabah", "Qadhi'","Illahi "," Wahyu "," Mubaligh "," Syariah "," Qiblat "," Haji "," Mufti "," Rasul "," Iman "," Dakwah "," Wali "," Fatwa "," Imam "," Nabi "," Sheikh "," Khutbah "," Tabligh "," Akhirat "," Azan "," Al Quran "," As Sunnah "," Auliya'","Karamah "," False Moon God "," Syahadah "," Baitullah "," Musolla "," Zakat Fitrah "," Hajjah "," Taqwa "and" Soleh ".[101][102][103]

North Korea

Main articles:Censorship in North KoreaandRadio jamming in Korea

Russia

Main articles:Censorship in the Russian Federation,Internet censorship in Russia,Russian fake news laws,andRussian 2022 war censorship laws
Russian opposition politicianIlya Yashinwas sentenced to eight-and-a-half years in prison for discussing theBucha massacrein Ukraine on aYouTubestream.

On 4 March 2022, Russian PresidentVladimir Putinsigned into law a bill introducingprison sentences of up to 15 yearsfor those who publish "knowingly false information" about the Russian military and its operations, leading to some media outlets in Russia to stop reporting on Ukraine or shutting their media outlet.[104][105]Although the1993 Russian Constitutionhas an article expressly prohibitingcensorship,[106]the Russian censorship apparatusRoskomnadzorordered the country's media to only use information from Russian state sources or face fines and blocks.[107]As of December 2022, more than 4,000 people were prosecuted under "fake news" laws in connection with thewar in Ukraine.[108]

Novaya Gazeta'seditor-in-chiefDmitry Muratovwas awarded the2021 Nobel Peace Prizefor his "efforts to safeguard freedom of expression". In March 2022,Novaya Gazetasuspended its print activities after receiving a second warning fromRoskomnadzor.[109]

Serbia

See also:Censorship in SerbiaandInternet censorship in Serbia

According to Christian Mihr, executive director ofReporters Without Borders,"censorship in Serbia is neither direct nor transparent, but is easy to prove."[110]According to Mihr there are numerous examples of censorship and self-censorship in Serbia[111]According to Mihr, Serbian prime ministerAleksandar Vučićhas proved "very sensitive to criticism, even on critical questions," as was the case with Natalija Miletic, a correspondent forDeutsche Welle Radio,who questioned him in Berlin about the media situation in Serbia and about allegations that some ministers in the Serbian government had plagiarized their diplomas, and who later received threats and offensive articles on the Serbian press.[111]

Multiple news outlets have accused Vučić of anti-democratic strongman tendencies.[112][113][114][115][116]In July 2014, journalists associations were concerned about the freedom of the media in Serbia, in which Vučić came under criticism.[117][118]

In September 2015 five members of United States Congress (Edie Bernice Johnson, Carlos Curbelo, Scott Perry, Adam Kinzinger, andZoe Lofgren) have informed Vice President of the United StatesJoseph Bidenthat Aleksandar's brother, Andrej Vučić, is leading a group responsible for deteriorating media freedom inSerbia.[119]

Singapore

Further information:Censorship in Singapore,Internet censorship in Singapore,andMedia censorship in Singapore

In theRepublic of Singapore,Section 33 of the Films Act originally banned the making, distribution and exhibition of "party political films", at the pain of a fine not exceeding $100,000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years.[120]The Act further defines a "party political film" as any film or video

(a) which is an advertisement made by or on behalf of any political party in Singapore or any body whose objects relate wholly or mainly to politics in Singapore, or any branch of such party or body; or
(b) which is made by any person and directed towards any political end in Singapore

In 2001, the short documentary calledA Vision of Persistenceon opposition politicianJ. B. Jeyaretnamwas also banned for being a "party political film". The makers of the documentary, all lecturers at the Ngee Ann Polytechnic, later submitted written apologies and withdrew the documentary from being screened at the 2001Singapore International Film Festivalin April, having been told they could be charged in court.[121]Another short documentary calledSingapore RebelbyMartyn See,which documentedSingapore Democratic Partyleader DrChee Soon Juan's acts of civil disobedience, was banned from the 2005Singapore International Film Festivalon the same grounds and See is being investigated for possible violations of the Films Act.[122]

This law, however, is often disregarded when such political films are made supporting the rulingPeople's Action Party(PAP).Channel NewsAsia's five-part documentary series on Singapore's PAP ministers in 2005, for example, was not considered a party political film.[123]

Exceptions are also made when political films are made concerning political parties of other nations. Films such asMichael Moore's 2004 documentaryFahrenheit 911are thus allowed to screen regardless of the law.[124]

Since March 2009, the Films Act has been amended to allow party political films as long as they were deemed factual and objective by a consultative committee. Some months later, this committee lifted the ban on Singapore Rebel.[125]

Soviet Union

Main articles:Censorship in the Soviet UnionandCensorship of images in the Soviet Union

Independent journalism did not exist in theSoviet UnionuntilMikhail Gorbachevbecame its leader. Gorbachev adoptedglasnost(openness), political reform aimed at reducing censorship; before glasnost all reporting was directed by theCommunist Partyor related organizations.Pravda,the predominant newspaper in the Soviet Union, had a monopoly. Foreign newspapers were available only if they were published bycommunist partiessympathetic to the Soviet Union.

Spain

Main articles:Censorship in SpainandInternet censorship in Spain

Turkey

See also:Censorship in Turkey,2017 block of Wikipedia in Turkey,and2016–present purges in Turkey
Turkish journalists protestingimprisonment of their colleaguesonHuman Rights Day,10 December 2016

Online access to all language versions ofWikipediawas blocked inTurkeyon 29 April 2017 byErdoğan's government.[126]

Article 299of the Turkish Penal Code deems it illegal to "Insult thePresident of Turkey".A person who is sentenced for a violation of this article can be sentenced to a prison term between one and four years and if the violation was made in public the verdict can be elevated by a sixth.[127]Prosecutions often target critics of the government, independent journalists, and political cartoonists.[128]Between 2014 and 2019, 128,872 investigations were launched for this offense and prosecutors opened 27,717 criminal cases.[129]

United Kingdom

Main articles:Censorship in the United Kingdom,Internet censorship in the United Kingdom,andFilm censorship in the United Kingdom

From December 1956 until 1974 theIrish republicanpolitical partySinn Féinwas banned from participating in elections by the Northern Ireland Government.[130]From 1988 until 1994 the British government prevented the UK media from broadcasting the voices (but not words) of Sinn Féin and ten Irish republican andUlster loyalistgroups.[131]

United States

Main articles:Censorship in the United States,Internet censorship in the United States,Film censorship in the United States,Book censorship in the United States,andCensorship of school curricula in the United States
See also:Censorship of student media in the United States

In the United States, most forms of censorship are self-imposed rather than enforced by the government. The government does not routinely censor material, although state and local governments often restrict what is provided in libraries and public schools.[132]In addition, distribution, receipt, and transmission (but notmere private possession) ofobscene materialmay be prohibited by law. Furthermore, underFCC v. Pacifica Foundation,the FCC has the power to prohibit the transmission of indecent material over broadcast. Additionally, critics ofcampaign finance reform in the United Statessay this reform imposes widespread restrictions on political speech.[133][134]

Uruguay

Main articles:Censorship in UruguayandInternet censorship in Uruguay

In 1973, a military coup took power in Uruguay, and the State practiced censorship. For example, writerEduardo Galeanowas imprisoned and later was forced to flee. His bookOpen Veins of Latin Americawas banned by the right-wing military government, not only in Uruguay, but also in Chile and Argentina.[135]

See also

  • Censor bars– Basic form of censorship
  • Collateral censorship– Type of censorship of speech
  • Deplatforming– Administrative or political action to deny access to a platform to express opinions
  • Media regulation– Laws on mass media
  • Motion Picture Production Code,also known as Hays Code – U.S. film studio self-censorship rules (1930–1967)
  • Nineteen Eighty-Four– 1949 novel by George Orwell
  • Orwellian– Pertaining to a dystopia like in George Orwell's fiction
  • Taboo– Societal or cultural prohibition
  • Streisand effect– Increased awareness of information caused by efforts to suppress it

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Works cited

  • Crampton, R.J. (1997),Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century and After,Routledge,ISBN978-0415164221
  • Major, Patrick; Mitter, Rana (2004), "East is East and West is West?", in Major, Patrick (ed.),Across the Blocs: Exploring Comparative Cold War Cultural and Social History,Taylor & Francis, Inc.,ISBN978-0714684642

Further reading

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