Chalukya dynasty

This article is about the Chalukyas of Vatapi. For other dynasties, seeChalukya (disambiguation).

TheChalukya dynasty([tʃaːɭukjə]) was aClassical Indiandynasty that ruled large parts ofsouthernandcentral Indiabetween the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modernBadami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of theKadambakingdom ofBanavasiand rapidly rose to prominence during the reign ofPulakeshin II.After the death of Pulakeshin II, theEastern Chalukyasbecame an independent kingdom in the easternDeccan.They ruled fromVengiuntil about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of theRashtrakutasin the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, theWestern Chalukyas,in the late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modernBasavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.

Chalukya dynasty
543–753
Greatest extent of the Chalukya Empire, 636 AD, 740 AD
Capital	Badami
Common languages	Kannada Sanskrit
Religion	Hinduism Buddhism Jainism
Government	Monarchy
Maharaja
• 543–566	Pulakeshin I
• 746–753	Kirtivarman II
History
• Earliest records	543
• Established	543
• Disestablished	753
Preceded by Succeeded by Kadamba dynasty Vakataka dynasty Rashtrakuta dynasty Eastern Chalukyas
Today part of	India

The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history ofSouth Indiaand agolden agein the history ofKarnataka.The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between theKaveriand theNarmadarivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture".Kannada literature,which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in theJainandVeerashaivatraditions. The 11th century saw the patronage ofTelugu literatureunder theEastern Chalukyas.

Origins

Natives of Karnataka

Old Kannada inscription of Chalukya King Mangalesha dated 578 AD at Badami cave temple no.3

Old Kannada inscription on victory pillar, Virupaksha Temple,Pattadakal,733–745 AD

While opinions vary regarding the early origins of the Chalukyas, the consensus among noted historians such asJohn Keay,D.C. Sircar,Hans Raj, S. Sen,Kamath,K. V. Rameshand Karmarkar is that the founders of the empire at Badami were native to the modernKarnatakaregion.

A theory that they were descendants of a 2nd-century chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of theAndhra Ikshvaku(from an Ikshvaku inscription of the 2nd century) was put forward. This according to Kamath has failed to explain the difference in lineage. The Kandachaliki feudatory call themselvesVashisthiputrasof theHiranyakagotra.The Chalukyas, however, address themselves asHarithiputrasofManavyasagotrain their inscriptions, which is the same lineage as their early overlords, theKadambasof Banavasi. This makes them descendants of the Kadambas. The Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas.

A later record of Eastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin theory and claims one ruler ofAyodhyacame south, defeated the Pallavas and married a Pallava princess. She had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be thePulakeshin I's father. However, according to the historians K. V. Ramesh, Chopra and Sastri, there are Badami Chalukya inscriptions that confirmJayasimhawas Pulakeshin I's grandfather andRanaraga,his father.Kamath andMoraesclaim it was a popular practice in the 11th century to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom. The Badami Chalukya records themselves are silent with regards to the Ayodhya origin.

While the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many historians, the epigraphist K. V. Ramesh has suggested that an earlier southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs examination.According to him, the complete absence of any inscriptional reference of their family connections to Ayodhya, and their subsequent Kannadiga identity may have been due to their earlier migration into present day Karnataka region where they achieved success as chieftains and kings. Hence, the place of origin of their ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire who may have considered themselves natives of the Kannada speaking region.The writing of 12th centuryKashmiripoetBilhanasuggests the Chalukya family belonged to theShudrawhile other sources claim they were born in the arms of Brahma, and hence wereKshatriyacaste.According toXuanzang,the Chalukya kingPulakeshin IIwas war-like and loved "military arts", because he was aKshatriyaby birth.

The historians Jan Houben and Kamath, and the epigraphist D.C. Sircar note the Badami Chalukyainscriptionsare inKannadaandSanskrit.According to the historian N. L. Rao, their inscriptions call themKarnatasand their names use indigenous Kannada titles such asPriyagallamandNoduttagelvom.The names of some Chalukya princes end with the pure Kannada termarasa(meaning "king" or "chief" ).TheRashtrakutainscriptions call the Chalukyas of BadamiKarnatakabala( "Power of Karnataka" ).It has been proposed by the historian S. C. Nandinath that the word "Chalukya" originated fromSalkiorChalkiwhich is a Kannada word for an agricultural implement.According to some historians, the Chalukyas originated from agriculturists.

Historical sources

Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the main source of information about Badami Chalukya history. Among them, theBadamicave inscriptions ofMangalesha(578),Kappe Arabhattarecord of c. 700, Peddavaduguru inscription ofPulakeshin II,theKanchiKailasanatha Temple inscription andPattadakalVirupaksha Temple inscription ofVikramaditya II(all in Kannada language) provide more evidence of the Chalukya language.The Badami cliff inscription of Pulakeshin I (543), theMahakuta Pillarinscription ofMangalesha(595) and theAihole inscriptionof Pulakeshin II (634) are examples of important Sanskrit inscriptions written in oldKannada script. The reign of the Chalukyas saw the arrival of Kannada as the predominant language of inscriptions along with Sanskrit, in areas of the Indian peninsula outside what is known asTamilakam(Tamil country).Several coins of the Badami Chalukyas with Kannada legends have been found. All this indicates that Kannada language flourished during this period.

Coinage of the Chalukyas of Badami. Uncertain ruler.c. 597–757 AD. Boar and Temple type.

Travelogues of contemporary foreign travellers have provided useful information about the Chalukyan empire. The Chinese travellerXuanzanghad visited the court ofPulakeshin II.At the time of this visit, as mentioned in theAiholerecord, Pulakeshin II had divided his empire into threeMaharashtrakasor great provinces comprising 99,000 villages each. This empire possibly covered present dayKarnataka,Maharashtraandcoastal Konkan.Xuanzang, impressed with the governance of the empire observed that the benefits of the king's efficient administration was felt far and wide. Later, Persian emperorKhosrau IIexchanged ambassadors with Pulakeshin II.

Legends

Court poets of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani narrate:

"Once when Brahma, the creator, was engaged in the performance of thesandhya(twilight) rituals, Indra approached and beseeched him to create a hero who could put to an end the increasing evil on earth. On being thus requested, Brahma looked steadily into theChuluka-jala(the water of oblation in his palm) and out sprang thence a great warrior, the progenitor of the Chalukyas ".The Chalukyas claimed to have been nursed by theSapta Matrikas( "seven divine mothers" ) and were worshippers of many gods including Siva, Vishnu, Chamundi, Surya, Kubera, Parvati, Vinayaka and Kartikeya.

Some scholars connect the Chalukyas with theChaulukyas(Solankis) ofGujarat.According to a myth mentioned in latter manuscripts ofPrithviraj Raso,Chaulukyas were born out of fire-pit (Agnikund) atMount Abu.However it has been reported that the story ofAgnikulais not mentioned at all in the original version of thePrithviraj Rasopreserved in the Fort Library atBikaner.

According to the Nilagunda inscription of King Vikramaditya VI (11th century or later), the Chalukyas originally hailed fromAyodhyawhere fifty-nine kings ruled, and later, sixteen more of this family ruled from South India where they had migrated. This is repeated by his court poet Bilhana, who claims that the first member of the family, "Chalukya", was so named as he was born in the "hollow of the hands" of GodBrahma.Some genealogical accounts point to an Ayodhya origin and claim that the Chalukyas belonged to theSolar dynasty.

According to a theory put forward by Lewis, the Chalukya were descendants of the "Seleukia"tribe ofIraqand that their conflict with thePallavaof Kanchi was, but a continuation of the conflict between ancient Seleukia and "Parthians",the proposed ancestors ofPallavas.However, this theory has been rejected by Kamath as it seeks to build lineages based simply on similar-sounding clan names.

Periods in Chalukya history

The Chalukyas ruled over theDeccanplateau in India for over 600 years. During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties. These are the "Chalukyas of Badami" (also called "Early Chalukyas" ), who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century, and the two sibling dynasties, the "Chalukyas of Kalyani" (also calledWestern Chalukyasor "Later Chalukyas" ) and the "Chalukyas of Vengi" (also calledEastern Chalukyas).

Chalukyas of Badami

Bhutanatha temple complex,atBadami

In the 6th century, with the decline of theGupta dynastyand their immediate successors in northern India, major changes began to happen in the area south of theVindhyas– the Deccan andTamilakam.The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region.The Chalukya dynasty was established byPulakeshin Iin 543.Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modernBadamiinBagalkotdistrict,Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital. Pulakeshin I and his descendants are referred to as "Chalukyas of Badami". They ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state ofKarnatakaand most ofAndhra Pradeshin the Deccan.

Pulakeshin II,whose pre-coronation name was Ereya,commanded control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty.He is considered one of the notable kings in Indian history.His queens were princess from theAlupa DynastyofSouth Canaraand theWestern Ganga DynastyofTalakad,clans with whom the Chalukyas maintained close family and marital relationships.Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of thePallavakingdom and halted the southward march ofHarshaby defeating him on the banks of the riverNarmada.He then defeated theVishnukundinsin the south-eastern Deccan.PallavaNarasimhavarmanhowever reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily. It is presumed Pulakeshin II, "the great hero", died fighting.

The Badami Chalukya dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of Pulakeshin II due to internal feuds when Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years.It recovered during the reign ofVikramaditya I,who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire. Vikramaditya I took the title "Rajamalla" (lit"Sovereign of theMallas"or Pallavas).The thirty-seven year rule ofVijayaditya(696–733) was a prosperous one and is known for prolific temple building activity.

The empire was its peak again during the rule of the illustriousVikramaditya II(733–744) who is known not only for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over PallavaNandivarman II,but also for his benevolence towards the people and the monuments of Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital.He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved aKannadainscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple.During his reign Arab intruders of theCaliphal province of Sindinvaded southern Gujarat which was under Chalukya rule, but the Arabs were defeated and driven out byAvanijanashraya Pulakeshin,the governor of theChalukya branch of Navsari.Vikramaditya II later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, thePandyas,theCholasand theCherasin addition to subduing aKalabhraruler.The last Chalukya king,Kirtivarman II,was overthrown by theRashtrakutakingDantidurgain 753.At their peak, the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from theKaveriin the south to theNarmadain the north.

Chalukyas of Kalyani

Main article:Western Chalukya Empire

Kyrgyzs

CHAM-
PA

576

CHENLA

FIRST TURKIC KHAGANATE

SASANIAN
EMPIRE

ALCHON
HUNS

CHALU-
KYAS

LATER
GUPTAS

NORTH.
ZHOU

NORTH.
QI

ZHANGZHUNG

CHEN

BYZANTINE
EMPIRE

AVAR
KHAGANATE

TUYUHUN

Khitans

Paleo-Siberians

Tungus

GOGU-
RYEO

TOCHA-
RIANS

class=notpageimage|

The Chalukyas and contemporary politiesc. 576

The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 after over 200 years of dormancy when much of the Deccan was under the rule of the Rashtrakutas. The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious BadamiChalukyadynasty of the 6th centurywhile other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the Early Chalukyas.

Tailapa II,a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi – 1000 (Bijapur district) overthrewKarka II,re-established the Chalukya rule in the western Deccan and recovered most of the Chalukya empire.The Western Chalukyas ruled for over 200 years and were in constant conflict with theCholas,and with their cousins, theEastern Chalukyasof Vengi.Vikramaditya VIis widely considered the most notable ruler of the dynasty.Starting from the very beginning of his reign, which lasted fifty years, he abolished the originalSakaera and established theVikrama Era.Most subsequent Chalukya inscriptions are dated in this new era.Vikramaditya VI was an ambitious and skilled military leader. Under his leadership the Western Chalukyas were able to end the Chola influence over Vengi (coastal Andhra) and become the dominant power in the Deccan.The Western Chalukya period was an important age in the development ofKannada literatureandSanskrit literature.They went into their final dissolution towards the end of the 12th century with the rise of theHoysala Empire,thePandyas,theKakatiyaand theSeuna Yadavas of Devagiri.

Chalukyas of Vengi

Main article:Eastern Chalukyas

Pulakeshin II conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the coastal districts of modernAndhra Pradeshin 616, defeating the remnants of theVishnukundinakingdom. He appointed his brotherKubja Vishnuvardhanaas Viceroy in 621.Thus the Eastern Chalukyas were originally of Kannada stock.After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom and included the region betweenNelloreandVisakhapatnam.

After the decline of the Badami Chalukya empire in the mid-8th century, territorial disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas, the new rulers of the western deccan, and the Eastern Chalukyas. For much of the next two centuries, the Eastern Chalukyas had to accept subordination towards the Rashtrakutas.Apart from a rare military success, such as the one by Vijayaditya II(c.808–847), it was only during the rule of Bhima I (c.892–921) that these Chalukyas were able to celebrate a measure of independence. After the death of Bhima I, the Andhra region once again saw succession disputes and interference in Vengi affairs by the Rashtrakutas.

The fortunes of the Eastern Chalukyas took a turn around 1000. Danarnava, their king, was killed in battle in 973 by the Telugu Choda King Bhima who then imposed his rule over the region for twenty-seven years. During this time, Danarnava's two sons took refuge in theCholakingdom. Choda Bhima's invasion of Tondaimandalam, a Chola territory, and his subsequent death on the battlefield opened up a new era in Chola–Chalukya relations. Saktivarman I, the elder son of Danarnava was crowned as the ruler of Vengi in 1000, though under the control of kingRajaraja Chola I.This new relationship between the Cholas and the coastal Andhra kingdom was unacceptable to the Western Chalukyas, who had by then replaced the Rashtrakutas as the main power in the western Deccan. The Western Chalukyas sought to brook the growing Chola influence in the Vengi region but were unsuccessful.

Initially, the Eastern Chalukyas had encouraged Kannada language and literature, though, after a period of time, local factors took over and they gave importance toTelugu language.Telugu literature owes its growth to the Eastern Chalukyas.

Architecture

See also:Badami Chalukya Architecture,Western Chalukya architecture,Pattadakal,Badami Cave Temples,andAihole

Virupaksha temple inDravidianstyle atPattadakal,built 740 CE

The Badami Chalukya era was an important period in the development of South Indian architecture. The kings of this dynasty were calledUmapati Varlabdhand built many temples for the Hindu god Shiva.Their style of architecture is called "Chalukyan architecture" or "Karnata Dravida architecture".Nearly a hundred monuments built by them, rock cut (cave) and structural, are found in theMalaprabhariver basin in modernBagalkot districtof northern Karnataka.The building material they used was a reddish-goldenSandstonefound locally. These cave temples are basically excavations, cut out of the living rock sites they occupy. They were not built as their structural counterparts were, rather created by a special technique known as "subtraction" and are basically sculptural.Though they ruled a vast empire, the Chalukyan workshops concentrated most of their temple building activity in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland –Aihole,Badami,PattadakalandMahakutain modern Karnataka state.

Their temple building activity can be categorised into three phases. The early phase began in the last quarter of the 6th century and resulted in many cave temples, prominent among which are three elementary cave temples at Aihole (oneVedic,one Jain and one Buddhist which is incomplete), followed by four developed cave temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE).These cave temples at Badami are similar, in that, each has a plain exterior but an exceptionally well finished interior consisting of a pillaredverandah,a columned hall (mantapa) and a cella (shrine, cut deep into rock) which contains the deity of worship.In Badami, three caves temples are Vedic and one in Jain. The Vedic temples contain large well sculpted images ofHarihara,Mahishasuramardhini,Varaha,Narasimha,Trivikrama,Vishnuseated onAnantha(the snake) andNataraja(dancingShiva).

The second phase of temple building was at Aihole (where some seventy structures exist and has been called "one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture") and Badami. Though the exact dating of these temples has been debated, there is consensus that the beginnings of these constructions are from c. 600.These are theLad Khan Temple(dated by some to c. 450 but more accurately to 620) with its interesting perforated stone windows and sculptures of river goddesses; the Meguti Jain Temple (634) which shows progress in structural design; the Durga Temple with its northern Indian style tower (8th century) and experiments to adapt a BuddhistChaityadesign to a brahminical one (its stylistic framework is overall a hybrid of north and south Indian styles.); the Huccimalli Gudi Temple with a new inclusion, avestibule,connecting the sanctum to the hall.Otherdravidastyle temples from this period are the Naganatha Temple at Nagaral; the Banantigudi Temple, the Mahakutesvara Temple and the Mallikarjuna Temple at Mahakuta; and the Lower Sivalaya Temple, the Malegitti Sivalaya Temple (upper) and the Jambulingesvara Temple at Badami.Located outside the Chalukyan architectural heartland, 140 km south-east of Badami, with a structure related to the Early Chalukya style is the unusual Parvati Temple atSanduruwhich dates to the late 7th century. It is medium-sized, 48 ft long and 37 ft wide. It has anagara(north Indian) stylevimana(tower) anddravida(south Indian) style parts, has nomantapa(hall) and consists of anantarala(vestibule) crowned with a barrel-vaulted tower (sukhanasi). The "staggered" base plan of the temple became popular much later, in the 11th century.

The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in the 8th century and now aUNESCOWorld Heritage Site,marks the culmination and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture. The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami are also from this period. There are ten temples at Pattadakal, six in southerndravidastyle and four in the northernnagarastyle. Well known among these are the Sangamesvara Temple (725), the Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745) in the southern style. The Papanatha temple (680) and Galaganatha Temple (740) are early attempts in thenagara–dravidafusion style.Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna Temples were commissioned by the two queens of King Vikramaditya II after his military success over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.Some well known names of Chalukyan architects are Revadi Ovajja, Narasobba andAnivarita Gunda.

The reign of Western Chalukyas was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture. Their architecture served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 8th century and theHoysala architecturepopularised in the 13th century.The centre of their cultural and temple-building activity lay in theTungabhadraregion of modern Karnataka state, encompassing the present-dayDharwad district;it included areas of present-dayHaveriandGadagdistricts.Here, large medieval workshops built numerous monuments.These monuments, regional variants of pre-existingdravidatemples, defined theKarnata dravidatradition.

The most notable of the many buildings dating from this period are theMahadeva Templeat Itagi in theKoppal district,the Kasivisvesvara Temple atLakkundiin theGadag district,the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti,and the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali,both in theDavangere district.Other notable constructions are theDodda Basappa TempleatDambal(Gadag district),theSiddhesvara TempleatHaveri(Haveri district),and the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri (Dharwad district).The Eastern Chalukyas built some fine temples at Alampur, in modern eastern Andhra Pradesh.

• 
  Bahubaliat Jain Cave temple No. 4 at Badami, 6th century
• 
  Vishnu image in Cave temple No. 3
• 
  Bhutanatha group of temples facing theBadamitank
• 
  The Parvati Temple, located about 140 km southeast to the Badami
• 
  Aihole– Durga Temple Front View
• 
  Aihole – Meguti Jain Temple
• 
  Mallikarjuna temple indravidianstyle and Kashi Vishwanatha temple innagarastyle atPattadakal,built 740 CE
• 
  Dancing Shiva in cave no. 1 in Badami
• 
  Papanatha temple at Pattadakal – fusion of southern and northern Indian styles, 680 CE

Literature

See also:Western Chalukya literature

Poetry on stone at the Meguti temple (Aihole inscription) dated 634 AD, in Sanskrit language and old Kannada script, with a Kannada language endorsement of about the same date at the bottom.

TheAihole inscriptionof Pulakeshin II (634) written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language and Kannada script is considered as a classical piece of poetry.A few verses of a poet named Vijayanaka who describes herself as the "darkSarasvati"have been preserved. It is possible that she may have been a queen of princeChandraditya(a son of Pulakeshin II).Famous writers in Sanskrit from the Western Chalukya period areVijnaneshwarawho achieved fame by writingMitakshara,a book on Hindu law, and KingSomeshvara III,a noted scholar, who compiled anencyclopaediaof all arts and sciences calledManasollasa.

From the period of the Badami Chalukyas, references are made to the existence of Kannada literature, though not much has survived.Inscriptions however refer to Kannada as the "natural language".TheKappe Arabhattarecord of c. 700 intripadi(three line) metre is the earliest available work in Kannada poetics.Karnateshwara Katha,which was quoted later by Jayakirti, is believed to be a eulogy of Pulakeshin II and to have belonged to this period.Other probable Kannada writers, whose works are not extant now but titles of which are known from independent referencesare Syamakundacharya (650), who is said to have authored thePrabhrita,and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier), the possible author of theChudamani( "Crest Jewel" ), a lengthy commentary onlogic.

The rule of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, however, is a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu literatures respectively. By the 9th–10th centuries, Kannada language had already seen some of its most notable writers. The "three gems" ofKannada literature,Adikavi Pampa,Sri PonnaandRannabelonged to this period.In the 11th century,Telugu literaturewas born under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas with Nannaya Bhatta as its first writer.

Badami Chalukya country

Army

The army was well organised and this was the reason for Pulakeshin II's success beyond the Vindyas.It consisted of an infantry, a cavalry, an elephant corps and a powerful navy. The Chinese travellerHiuen-Tsiangwrote that the Chalukyan army had hundreds of elephants which were intoxicated with liquor prior to battle.It was with their navy that they conqueredRevatidvipa(Goa), andPurion east coast of India. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the termKarnatakabalawhen referring to the powerful Chalukya armies.

Land governance

The government, at higher levels, was closely modelled after theMagadhanandSatavahanaadministrative machinery.The empire was divided intoMaharashtrakas(provinces), then into smallerRashtrakas(Mandala),Vishaya(district),Bhoga(group of 10 villages) which is similar to theDasagramaunit used by theKadambas.At the lower levels of administration, the Kadamba style prevailed fully. The Sanjan plates of Vikramaditya I even mentions a land unit calledDasagrama.In addition to imperial provinces, there were autonomous regions ruled by feudatories such as the Alupas, theGangas,theBanasand the Sendrakas.Local assemblies and guilds looked after local issues. Groups ofmahajanas(learnedbrahmins) looked afteragraharas(calledghatikaor "place of higher learning" ) such as at Badami which was served by 2000mahajansand Aihole which was served by 500mahajanas.Taxes were levied and were called theherjunka– tax on loads, thekirukula– tax on retail goods in transit, thebilkode– sales tax, thepannaya– betel tax,siddaya– land tax and thevaddaravula– tax levied to support royalty.

Coinage

The Badami Chalukyas minted coins that were of a different standard compared to the coins of the northern kingdoms.The coins hadNagariand Kannada legends.The coins of Mangalesha had the symbol of a temple on the obverse and a 'sceptre between lamps' or a temple on the reverse. Pulakeshin II's coins had a caparisoned lion facing right on the obverse and a temple on the reverse. The coins weighed 4 grams and were called, in old-Kannada,hun(orhonnu) and had fractions such asfana(orfanam) and thequarter fana(the modern day Kannada equivalent beinghana– which literally means "money" ).A gold coin calledgadyanais mentioned in a record at the Vijayeshwara Temple atPattadakal,which later came to be known asvaraha(their royal emblem).

Religion

Vaishnava Cave temple No. 3 at Badami, 578 AD

BothShaivismandVaishnavismflourished during the Badami Chalukya period, though it seems the former was more popular.Famous temples were built in places such as Pattadakal, Aihole and Mahakuta, and priests (archakas) were invited from northern India. Vedic sacrifices, religious vows (vrata) and the giving of gifts (dana) was important.The Badami kings were followers ofVedicHinduism and dedicated temples to popular Hindu deities in Aihole. Sculptures of deities testify to the popularity of Hindu Gods such asVishnu,Shiva,Kartikeya,Ganapathi,Shakti,SuryaandSapta Matrikas( "seven mothers" ). The Badami kings also performed theAshwamedha( "horse sacrifice" ).The worship ofLajja Gauri,afertility goddessis known.Jainismtoo was a prominent religion during this period. The kings of the dynasty were however secular and actively encouragedJainism.One of the Badami Cave temples is dedicated to the Jain faith. Jain temples were also erected in the Aihole complex, the temple at Maguti being one such example.Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakeshin II was a Jain. Queen Vinayavati consecrated a temple for theTrimurti( "Hindu trinity" ) at Badami. Sculptures of the Trimurti,Harihara(half Vishnu, half Shiva) andArdhanarishwara(half Shiva, half woman) provide ample evidence of their tolerance.Buddhism was on a decline, having made its ingress into Southeast Asia. This is confirmed by the writings of Hiuen-Tsiang. Badami, Aihole, Kurtukoti and Puligere (modernLakshmeshwarin theGadag district) were primary places of learning.

Society

TheHindu caste systemwas present and devadasis were recognised by the government. Some kings had concubines (ganikas) who were given much respect,andSatiwas perhaps absent since widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records.Devadasiswere however present in temples. SageBharata'sNatyashastra,the precursor toBharatanatyam,the classical dance of South India, was popular and is seen in many sculptures and is mentioned in inscriptions.Some women from the royal family enjoyed political power in administration. Queen Vijayanka was a noted Sanskrit poet,Kumkumadevi, the younger sister of Vijayaditya (and queen of Alupa King Chitravahana) made several grants and had a Jainbasadicalled Anesajjebasadi constructed at Puligere,and the queens of Vikramaditya II, Lokamahadevi and Trailokyamahadevi made grants and possibly consecrated the Lokesvara Temple (now called Virupaksha temple) but also and the Mallikarjuna temple respectively at Pattadakal.

In popular culture

The Chalukya era may be seen as the beginning of the fusion of cultures of northern and southern India, making way for the transmission of ideas between the two regions. This is seen clearly in the field of architecture. The Chalukyas spawned theVesarastyle of architecture which includes elements of the northernnagaraand southerndravidastyles. During this period, the expanding Sanskritic culture mingled with localDravidianvernaculars which were already popular.Dravidian languagesmaintain these influences even today. This influence helped to enrich literature in these languages.The Hindu legal system owes much to the Sanskrit workMitaksharaby Vijnaneshwara in the court of Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the greatest work in legal literature,Mitaksharais a commentary onYajnavalkyaand is a treatise on law based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of India. EnglishmanHenry Thomas Colebrookelater translated into English the section on inheritance, giving it currency in the British Indian court system.It was during the Western Chalukya rule that theBhaktimovement gained momentum in South India, in the form ofRamanujacharyaandBasavanna,later spreading into northern India.

A celebration calledChalukya utsava,a three-day festival of music and dance, organised by theGovernment of Karnataka,is held every year at Pattadakal, Badami and Aihole.The event is a celebration of the achievements of the Chalukyas in the realm of art, craft, music and dance. The program, which starts at Pattadakal and ends in Aihole, is inaugurated by theChief Minister of Karnataka.Singers, dancers, poets and other artists from all over the country take part in this event. In the26 February2006 celebration, 400 art troupes took part in the festivities. Colorful cutouts of theVarahathe Chalukya emblem,SatyashrayaPulakeshin (Pulakeshin II), famous sculptural masterpieces such asDurga,Mahishasuramardhini(Durga killing demonMahishasura) were present everywhere. The program at Pattadakal is namedAnivaritacharigund vedikeafter the famous architect of the Virupaksha temple,Gundan Anivaritachari.At Badami it is calledChalukya Vijayambika Vedikeand at Aihole,Ravikirti Vedikeafter the famous poet and minister (Ravikirti) in the court of Pulakeshin II.Immadi Pulikeshi,aKannadamovie of the 1960s starringDr. Rajkumarcelebrates the life and times of the great king.

See also

• Eastern Chalukyas
• Western Chalukyas
• Chalukya Cholas
• Hoysala Empire
• Chola dynasty
• Kamboi
• Kamboja

References

Books

• Bolon, Carol Radcliffe (1 January 1979). "The Mahākuṭa Pillar and Its Temples".Artibus Asiae.41(2/3): 253–268.doi:10.2307/3249519.JSTOR3249519.
• Chopra, P.N.; Ravindran, T.K.; Subrahmanian, N (2003) [2003].History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern) Part 1.New Delhi: Chand Publications.ISBN81-219-0153-7.
• Cousens, Henry (1996) [1926].The Chalukyan Architecture of Kanarese Districts.New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.OCLC37526233.
• Foekema, Gerard (1996).Complete Guide to Hoysala Temples.New Delhi: Abhinav.ISBN81-7017-345-0.
• Foekema, Gerard (2003) [2003].Architecture decorated with architecture: Later medieval temples of Karnataka, 1000–1300 AD.New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.ISBN81-215-1089-9.
• Hardy, Adam (1995) [1995].Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation-The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th to 13th Centuries.Abhinav Publications.ISBN81-7017-312-4.
• Houben, Jan E.M. (1996) [1996].Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the History of the Sanskrit language.Brill.ISBN90-04-10613-8.
• Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980].A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present.Bangalore: Jupiter books.LCCN80905179.OCLC7796041.
• Karmarkar, A.P. (1947) [1947].Cultural history of Karnataka: ancient and medieval.Dharwad: Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha.OCLC8221605.
• Keay, John (2000) [2000].India: A History.New York: Grove Publications.ISBN0-8021-3797-0.
• Michell, George (2002) [2002].Pattadakal – Monumental Legacy.Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-566057-9.
• Moraes, George M. (1990) [1931].The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and Medieval Karnataka.New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services.ISBN81-206-0595-0.
• Mugali, R.S. (1975) [1975].History of Kannada literature.Sahitya Akademi.OCLC2492406.
• Narasimhacharya, R (1988) [1988].History of Kannada Literature.New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services.ISBN81-206-0303-6.
• Ramesh, K.V. (1984).Chalukyas of Vatapi.Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.OCLC567370037.3987-10333.
• Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. (2002) [1955].A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar.New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press.ISBN0-19-560686-8.
• Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999).Ancient Indian History and Civilization.New Age Publishers.ISBN81-224-1198-3.
• Thapar, Romila (2003) [2003].The Penguin History of Early India.New Delhi: Penguin Books.ISBN0-14-302989-4.
• Vaidya, C.V.History of Mediaeval Hindu India (Being a History of India from 600 to 1200 A.D.).Poona: Oriental Book Supply Agency.OCLC6814734.
• Various (1988) [1988].Encyclopaedia of Indian literature – vol 2.Sahitya Akademi.ISBN81-260-1194-7.

Web

• "APOnline – History of Andhra Pradesh-ancient period-Eastern Chalukyas by Tata Consultancy Services".Archived fromthe originalon 6 December 2006.Retrieved12 November2006.
• "Architecture of Indian Subcontinent, Takeyo Kamiya, 20 September 1996, Published by Gerard da Cunha-Architecture Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India".Archivedfrom the original on 2 April 2015.Retrieved12 November2006.
• "Badami Chalukyans' magical transformation, an article by Azmathulla Shariff in Deccan Herald, Spectrum, 26 July 2005".Archived fromthe originalon 10 February 2007.Retrieved12 November2006.

External links

• "Chalukyan Art by Dr. Jyotsna Kamat, Kamat's Potpourri, 4 November 2006".Retrieved10 November2006.
• "History of the Kannada Literature, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat, on Kamat's Potpourri, Timeless Theater-Karnataka-History of Kannada, 4 November 2006".Archived fromthe originalon 3 April 2005.Retrieved12 November2006.
• "Aihole Temples, Photographs by Michael D. Gunther, 2002".Retrieved10 November2006.
• "Badami Cave Temples, Photographs by Michael D. Gunther, 2002".Retrieved10 November2006.
• "Pattadakal Temples, Photographs by Michael D. Gunther, 2002".Retrieved10 November2006.
• Chalukyas of Kalyana (973–1198 CE)by Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
• "Coins of Alupas".Archived fromthe originalon 15 August 2006.Retrieved10 November2006.