Wikipedia

Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia

Chinese folk religionplays a dynamic role in the lives of theoverseas Chinesewho have settled in the countries of this geographic region, particularlyBurmese Chinese,Singaporean Chinese,Malaysian Chinese,Thai Chinese,Indonesian ChineseandHoa.SomeChinese Filipinosalso still practice some Chinese traditional religions, besidesChristianityof eitherRoman CatholicismorProtestantism,with which some have also varyinglysyncretizedtraditional Chinese religious practices.Chinese folk religion,theethnic religionofHan Chinese,"Shenism" was especially coined referring to its Southeast Asian expression; another Southeast Asian name for the religion is theSanskritexpressionSatya Dharma(literally "Truth Law" ).

City God TempleofSuphan Buri,Thailand.
Kheng Hock Keong,of the Chinese community inYangon,Burma,is a temple enshriningMazu.

The Chinese folk religion of Southeast Asia is markedly typified by the interaction with Malay indigenous religions (MalaysianandIndonesian folk religion), the adoption of gods ofHinduderivation, such asBrahma,GaneshaandHanuman,and alsosyncretismwithChristianityin thePhilippines.The philosophical forms ofConfucianismandTaoismare followed, andorganised formsof the Chinese folk faith, such as theChurch of Virtue,YiguandaoandZhenkongism,have taken significant foothold among Southeast Asian Chinese.

InSingaporeabout 11% of the total population is Taoist, including the 14.4% ofChinese Singaporeansidentifying as Taoists.[1]InMalaysia,around 10% of Chinese Malaysians practice Chinese folk religions, corresponding to around 1% of the country's population.[2]However, numbers may be significantly larger since many folk religious Chinese register as "Buddhists" for census purposes. InIndonesia,Taosu Agung Kusumo, leader of the Majelis Agama Tao Indonesia, claims there are 5 million Taoist followers in the country as of 2009.[3]

By country

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Indonesia

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Kelenteng Thien Ie Kong (Temple of the Olden Lord of Heaven) inSamarinda,East Kalimantanprovince of Indonesia.

The Chinese folk religion of theChinese Indonesiansis named "Confucianism" or "Satya Dharma", andChinese templesare calledklentengorviharain theIndonesian language.It is officially recognised by the government asAgama KhonghucuorReligion ofConfucius,which was chosen because of the political condition inIndonesiabefore the 1998 end of the rule ofSuharto,who had forbidden all forms of Chinese religions; Indonesian Chinese could embrace only the five officially recognised religions, and many of them eventually converted to Buddhism or Christianity. Chinese Indonesians had their culture and religious rights restored only after the fourth president of Indonesia,Abdurrahman Wahid,issued a regulation that recognised "Confucianism" among the legal religions of the country. He said that:

All religions insist on peace. From this we might think that the religious struggle for peace is simple... but it is not. The deep problem is that people use religion wrongly in pursuit of victory and triumph. This sad fact then leads to conflict with people who have different beliefs.[4]

The first precept ofPancasila(the Five Basic Principles of the Indonesian state) stipulates belief in the one and onlyGod.The Confucian philosophy is able to fulfill this, for Confucius mentioned only one God in his teaching, theHeavenorShangdi.The Heaven possess the characteristic ofYuan Heng Li Zhen,orOmnipresent,Omnipotent,Omnibenevolent,Just.[5]

The Master said, "Great indeed was Yao as a sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yao corresponded to it. How vast was his virtue! The people could find no name for it. How majestic was he in the works which he accomplished! How glorious in the elegant regulations which he instituted!" (VIII, xix, tr. Legge 1893:214)

Another movement in Indonesia is theTridharma(Sanskrit:"law of the three" ),syncretisingelements of different religions, the Chinesethree teachingsamongst others.[6]After the fall of Suharto rule it is undergoing a process of systematisation of doctrines and rituals.[6]Tridharma temples always consist of three main rooms: the front room forTianorGod,the middle for the main deity of the temple, and the back room for the Founders of three religions and their pantheon:Confucius,Laozi,andBuddha.Several big Chinese population cities such asMedan,Batam,BagansiapiapiandSingkawanghave significant numbers of Chinese folk religion followers. There are also many Taoist associations in Indonesia.

Some local deities which are not known outside Indonesia includesTan Hu Cin JinfromBanyuwangi-Bali,Tan Tik Siu fromTulungagung,Tan Oei Ji Sian Seng or Gi Yong Kong fromRembang-Lasem, and Tey Hai Cin Jin who is worshiped in the coastal cities of East and Middle Java.

Malaysia

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Kwong Fook Kung Temple, a Chinese folk temple inPapar,Sabah.
TheSnake TempleinPenang,Malaysia,hosting a Chinese cult of the snake that is unique to the area.
See also:Taoism in MalaysiaandMalaysian folk religion

InMalaysiatheMalaysian Chineseconstitute a large segment of the population, mostly adherents ofMahayana Buddhism.The Chinese traditional religion has a relatively significant registered following in the states ofSarawak(6%) andPenang(5%). Many other folk religious Chinese register as "Buddhists" in government surveys. Chinese temples are calledtokongin theMalaysian language.

The Chinese folk religion was brought into Malaysia byChinese emigrantsin the 15th century, with small settlements and aTemplethat were established inMalaccabyHokkientraders, but it was not until the 19th century that there was a mass migration of Chinese. They builttemplesdedicated to theirDeities,schools, and cemeteries for those who died. The Chinese migration during the tin and gold mining days, which were a result of high demand for these products, prompted the need for temples for practices and religious rituals.[7]

Clan organisations in the Chinese immigrant society were important, where surnames, dialect, locality and trade mattered. TheCantonese,Hokkien,TeochewandHakka,respectively, formedlineage associationsandKongsi,such as theKhoo KongsiandEng Chuan Tong Tan Kongsi,which are grassroots supporters of Chinese overseas communities.

A prominent cult is that ofTua Pek Kong(Đại bá côngDabo Gong), which has incorporated the cult of theNa Tuk Kong(Nã đốc côngNadu Gong) andDatuk Keramatof local Malay origin. Other native and Thai Deities have been incorporated into the pantheon.

Thailand

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Thailandhas a large population ofThai Chinese,people of Chinese or partial Chinese origin (up to 14% of the population of the country). Most of those who follow Buddhism have been integrated into theTheravada Buddhisttradition of the country, with only a negligible minority still practicingChinese Buddhism.However, many others have retained the Chinese folk religions and Taoism.[8]Despite the large number of followers and temples, and although they are practiced freely, these religions have no state recognition, their temples are not counted as places of worship, and their followers are counted as "Theravada Buddhists" in officially released religious figures.[8]In Thailand, Chinese temples are calledsanchao(Thai:ศาลเจ้า).[8]

As in other Southeast Asian countries, the Chinese folk religion of Thailand has developed local features, including the worship of local gods.[8]Major Chinese festivals such as theNian,ZhongqiuandQingmingare widely celebrated, especially inBangkok,Phuket,and other parts of Thailand where there are large Chinese populations.[9]

The Chinese in the city ofPhuketare noted for theirnine-day vegetarian festivalbetween September and October. During the festive season, devotees will abstain from meat, andmortification of the fleshbyChinese mediumsis also commonly seen, along with rites devoted to the worship ofTua Pek Kong.Such traditions were developed during the 19th century in Phuket by the local Chinese with influences from Thai culture.[10]

Singapore

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Girl praying to theCity GodatThian Hock Keng TempleinTelok Ayer Street,Singapore.
See also:Taoism in Singapore

Sizeable number ofChinese SingaporeanspracticeTaoism,which in the city state is used as asynecdochefor broader Chinese folk religion. Taoists in Singapore worship many Deities that frequently are embodied by historical ancestors and are subject to a complex Taoist hierarchy of veneration. They also worship some deities of common origins, notably theJade Emperor,Xuan Tian Shang Di,Lord Guan,andTian Shang Sheng Mu.Other deities that are venerated and frequently kept at home as auspicious images include theFu, Lu, and Shou.Caishenis also popularly venerated by many Chinese businessmen. However, certain deities are worshipped by a particular dialect group, and may not share a common devotion with other Chinese dialect groups. One interesting example isQing Shui Zhu Shi( tổ sư công ); this particular deity is mainly worshipped by the Hokkien, particularly fromAnxi County.Buddhist Bodhisattvas likeGuanyinorDi Zang Wangare popularly worshipped in Singapore. Deities from other ethnicities such asPhra Phrom,Na Tuk Kong( nã đốc công ) orDatuk Keramatare also venerated.

Adherents of Taoism or Chinese Folk Religion usually place their main altars/shrines inside their living room. This is more often seen among Chinese families, rather than individuals. The main Gods/Deities are enshrined at the centre of the top altar, and a tablet dedicated to the Guardians of Earth/Dizhushen( địa chủ thần ) is placed at the bottom altar.Ancestral tabletsare usually placed beside the statues/images of the main Gods/Deities at the top altar. Often, anincense burnerto burn incense sticks is placed in front of the Gods/Deities, and a separate, smaller incense burner is placed in front of the ancestral tablet. Oil lamps may also be placed at altars, and fruit or flower offerings are also placed in front of the Gods/Deities as offerings. Some families may also have an altar dedicated to theKitchen God( táo quân ) inside the kitchen.

Adherents usually install a small altar/shrine, painted red and gold, with the words "Heaven Official Bestows Blessings" ( thiên quan tứ phúc ) written on it outside the house, or simply a small incense burner filled with ash where incense sticks are placed. This is dedicated toTian Gong( thiên công )/Jade Emperor( ngọc hoàng đại đế ) and is the first altar that they will worship. After they have worshipped toward the Heaven representing Tian Gong/Jade Emperor, they will proceed to worship at the main altar to the Gods/Deities, then to the ancestral tablets, and eventually to the Guardians of Earth/Dizhushen. The smoke emitted from burning incense sticks symbolizes their devotion and prayer, and at times requests to the Gods/Deities.

Philippines

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See also:Chinese Filipino § Religion,List of religious buildings in Metro Manila § Buddhism,andList of religious buildings in Metro Manila § Taoism
Thai To Taoist Temple inCaloocan,Metro Manila,Philippines

A small number ofChinese Filipinos(2%) continue to practisetraditional Chinese religionssolely.[11]Mahayana Buddhism,specifically ChinesePure Land Buddhism,[12]Taoism,[13]andancestral worship(includingConfucianism)[14]are the traditional Chinese beliefs that continue to have adherents amongChinese Filipinos.

Buddhist and Taoist temples can be found where Chinese Filipinos live, especially in urban areas likeMetro Manila.[n 1]Veneration of theGuanyin( quan âm ) orMazu( mụ tổ ), known locally inHokkienasKuan-im(HokkienChinese:Quan âm;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Koan-im) andMa-cho(HokkienChinese:Mụ tổ;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Má-chó͘) respectively, either in its pure form or as a representation of theMary Mother Of God,is practised by many Chinese Filipinos. For example,Mazu / Ma-chois sometimes known or identified as"Our Lady of Caysasay",which is also an emanation of theBlessed Virgin Mary.Both are considered emanations of each other, with the images ofOur Lady of AntipoloandOur Lady of the Abandonedas additional emanations, as all four are related to water and/or travel.[15]Additionally,Guan Yuis also sometimes known among Chinese Filipinos as"Santo Santiago"(St. James) or in Hokkien as "Te Ya Kong "(HokkienChinese:Đế gia công;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Tè-iâ-kong) or "Kuan Kong "(HokkienChinese:Quan công;Pe̍h-ōe-jī:Koan-kong).[16]Chinese Filipinos have also established indigenous religious denominations likeBell Church( chung giáo ), which is asyncreticreligion with an ecumenical and interfaith orientation.[17]There are several prominent Chinese temples likeSeng Guan Temple(Buddhist) inManila,Ma-Cho Temple(Mazu worship) inSan Fernando, La Union,Cebu Taoist TempleinCebu City,Lon Wa Buddhist TempleinDavao City,and many more distributed around the country.

Around half (40%) of all Filipino Chinese, regardless of religion, still claim to practiseancestral worship.Chinese Filipinos, especially the older generations, have a tendency to pay respects to their deceased ancestors at least once a year, by going to the temple, the local Chinese cemetery or traditional burial grounds, such as theManila Chinese Cemeteryfor those inMetro Manila,often burningcandles,incenseandjoss paper money,presenting offerings like certain fruits orfruit juice tetra packsto the deceased, and decorating the tombstones,mausoleums,andancestral tabletswithjoss paper.Chinese Filipino mausoleums or burial grounds frequently have altars forHoutu ( hậu thổ ),where candles and incense are lit.

Santo Cristo de Longos Shrine (Ongpin St,Binondo,Manila), withjoss sticks

Since most Chinese Filipinos practiceChristianity,such asCatholicismorProtestantism,there is also a unique religioussyncretismthat is found in many Chinese Filipino homes. For Catholic Chinese Filipinos, some have altars bearing Catholic images such as theSanto Niño(Child Jesus) as well as statues of theBuddhaand Taoist gods or other deities like theThree Deitiesin their homes, often decorated withSampaguitagarlands.It is not unheard of to venerate theBlessed Virgin Maryusingjoss sticks (Tao and Buddhist incense sticks)and other traditional offerings, much as one would do forGuan YinorMazu.[18]In general for both Catholic and Protestant Christian Chinese Filipinos, it is normal in many households to have traditional Chinese statues and figurines like theFat Buddha,theThree Deities,theLucky Fu( phúc ) Cat,theMoney Frog,Chinese couplets,or other such traditional Chineseparaphernaliafor the purposes of inviting good fortune, luck, and prosperity, while at the same timeprayingtoGodand conductingBible studyin the same household or room and havingChristian symbols,Bible verses,and other such Catholic or Protestant Christianparaphernaliaposted around the household.

Vietnam

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Main article:Taoism in Vietnam

ManyVietnamese peopleandHoa people(Han Chinese of Vietnam) practice Chinese folk religion, Buddhism andVietnamese folk religionsyncretically.[citation needed]

Features

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Organised traditions

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Maha Vihara Duta Maitreya is a Yiguandao temple inBatam,Indonesia. The deityMaitreyais represented by the statue on the porch roof.

Someorganised sects stemming from Chinese practiseshave been active among Southeast Asian Chinese. They include especiallyDe jiao( "religion ofvirtue"),[19][20][21]Zhenkong jiao( "Teachings of True Emptiness" )[22]andYiguandao( "Consistent Way" ).[22]

Southeast Asian Chinese pantheon

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The names of the gods are in transcribed Mandarin or certainChinese dialectsspoken by Southeast Asian Chinese populations:

  • Thin Kong( thiên công ) "Lord of Heaven" also known as the Jade Emperor
  • Xuan Tian Shang Di( huyền thiên thượng đế ) or Siong Teh Gong ( thượng đế công ), Powerful Deity and was known as the Patron Deity of Ming Dynasty
  • Hou Tu( hậu thổ ) or Di Mu Niang Niang ( địa mẫu nương nương ), known as Goddess Queen of the Earth
  • Xi Wang Mu( tây vương mẫu ), an ancient deity and was highly honored
  • Dou Mu Yuan Jun( đấu mẫu nguyên quân ), Mother Goddess of the Big Dipper or Lady Mother of the Chariot
  • Kew Ong Yah( cửu hoàng gia ), Nine Emperor Gods who symbolized the nine stars of the Big Dipper, was known in Malay as "Perayaan Dewa Sembilan Maharaja"
  • Guan Teh Gong( quan đế công ) or Guan Sheng Di Jun ( quan thánh đế quân ) or "Lord Guan" - God of Military, Symbol of Righteousness and Justice, Patron Deity of police, businessmen and secret societies
  • Kuan Yim Pu Chor( quan âm phật tổ ) or also known asAvalokiteśvara- Goddess of Mercy or Bodhisattva of Compassion
  • Jiu Tian Xuan Nü( cửu thiên huyền nữ ) Lady of the Nine Heavens, an ancient Deity and also worshipped as Goddess of War
  • Ma Zu( mụ tổ ) or Tian Shang Sheng Mu ( thiên thượng thánh mẫu ), Goddess of the sea, Patron Deity of fishermen, sailors and any occupations related to sea/ocean, also regarded as Patron Deity for Lim ( lâm ) Clan
  • Ong Yah Gong( vương gia tín ngưỡng ), Divine Emissaries ( đại thiên tuần thú ) who tour the world of the living on behalf of the Jade Emperor, expelling disease and evil
  • Qing Shui Zhu Shi( thanh thủy tổ sư ) or Cho Su Gong ( tổ sư công ), Patron Deity of Anxi County in Quanzhou
  • Bao Sheng Da Di( bảo sinh đại đế ), Patron Deity of Tong'an District in Xiamen, also worshipped as a Medicinal Deity
  • Guang Ze Zun Wang( quảng trạch tôn vương ), Honorific King of Great Compassion, Patron Deity of Nan'an City in Quanzhou
  • Kai Zhang Sheng Wang( khai chương thánh vương ), Patron Deity of Zhangzhou
  • Tua Pek Kong( đại bá công ) orFu De Zheng Shen( phúc đức chính thần )
  • Hua Tuo( hoa đà ), was regarded as "divine physician" in Chinese history and worshipped as a Medicinal Deity
  • Qi Tian Da Sheng( tề thiên đại thánh ) or Dai Seng Yah ( đại thánh gia ), the popular and powerful Monkey God
  • Seng Ong Yah( thành hoàng gia ), Patron Deity of City or City God
  • Choy Sun Yeh( tài thần "Wealth God" )
  • Wen Chang Di Jun( văn xương đế quân ), God of Culture and Literature, Patron Deity of scholars and students
  • Zhu Sheng Niang Niang ( chú sinh nương nương ), Goddess of fertility and children
  • Yue Xia Lao Ren( nguyệt hạ lão nhân ), Patron Deity of marriage and love
  • He-He Er Xian( hòa hợp nhị tiên ), Immortals of Harmony and Union, associated with happy marriages
  • Hua Gong Hua Po ( hoa công hoa bà ) Patron Deities and Protector of children
  • Tai Yang Xing Jun ( thái dương tinh quân ) Sun God
  • Tai Yin Niang Niang ( thái âm nương nương ) orChang Er( thường nga ), Moon Goddess, worshipped by female devotees during Mid-Autumn Festival
  • Tai Sui( thái tuế ) 60 Heavenly Officials who will be in charge of each year during the Chinese sixty years cycle
  • Fu, Lu, and Shou( phúc lộc thọ ), Three deities of stars representing auspicious, good life and longevity.
  • Wu Ying Jiang Jun ( ngũ doanh tương quân The Celestial Generals of Five Directions)
  • Teh Choo Kong( địa chủ công ) "Earth Lord" or Di Zhu Shen ( địa chủ thần ) "God of the Purified Place"
  • Ho Yah Gong ( hổ gia công ) "Tiger Deity" who guard the temples and was worshipped for protection against bad luck, dangers and enemies
  • Zao Jun( táo quân ), Kitchen God and also known as the Stove God
  • Men Shen( môn thần ), Divine Guardians of doors and gates
  • Tua Li Yah Pek( đại nhị gia bá ), Underworld Deities who are in charge of escorting or arresting the spirits of the dead, also been highly regarded for their brotherhood spirit
  • Gu Tao Baey Bin( ngưu đầu mã diện ), Guardians of the Underworld
  • Jin Qian Bo ( kim tiền bá ), Popularly known in English as Uncle Moneybags, who oversees incense money transmission from the living realm to the realm of the dead (Underworld)
  • She Mian Shen( tứ diện thần ), also known as Four Faced Deity, who is also known asBrahma
  • Na Tuk Kong( nã đốc công ), also asDato GongorDatuk Gong,related toDatuk KeramatinMalaysian folk religion

Places of worship and practice

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See also:Chinese temple

Chinese temples in Indonesia and Malaysia are calledkelenteng,klenteng,tokongorpekongin localMalay languages,or alternativelybio,the southernChinesepronunciation of Mandarinmiao(Miếu). In Thailand their name issanchao(Thai:ศาลเจ้า). Items for Chinese religious practices in Southeast Asia are supplied atshén liào shāngdiàn( thần liêu thương điếm "shops of goods for the gods" ).

See also

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Wikimedia Commons has media related toChinese temples in Malaysia.

Notes

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  1. ^most prominently the BuddhistSeng Guan Templein Tondo, Manila.

References

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  1. ^Singapore Department of Statistics (12 January 2011)."Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion"(PDF).Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 3 March 2011.Retrieved16 January2011.
  2. ^"2010 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia"(PDF).Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 13 November 2013.Retrieved17 June2012.p. 13
  3. ^"Tao, Taoism Religion".Indonesiamatters.com.Retrieved20 November2011.
  4. ^Ambassadors for the Universal Peace Federation.Reverendsunmyungmoon.org.
  5. ^Bidang Litbang PTITD/Matrisia Jawa Tengah. 2007.Pengetahuan Umum Tentang Tri Dharma,First Edition (July 2007). Publisher: Benih Bersemi, Semarang,Indonesia.
  6. ^abTsuda Koji."Chinese Religion" in Modern Indonesia: Focusing on the Trend Toward Systematization in the Post-Soeharto Era.Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
  7. ^Kamal Hassan; Ghazali bin Basri (eds.).Religions & Beliefs.Encyclopedia of Malaysia. Vol. 10.ISBN981-3018-51-8.
  8. ^abcdTatsuki Kataoka.Religion as Non-religion: The Place of Chinese Temples in Phuket, Southern Thailand.InSoutheast Asian Studies,Vol. 1, No. 3, December 2012, pp. 461–485. Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University.
  9. ^Tong Chee Kiong; Chan Kwok Bun (2001). "Rethinking Assimilation and Ethnicity: The Chinese of Thailand". In Tong Chee Kiong; Chan Kwok Bun (eds.).Alternate Identities: The Chinese of Contemporary Thailand.pp. 30–34.ISBN978-98-12-10142-6.
  10. ^Jean Elizabeth DeBernardi (2006).The Way That Lives in the Heart: Chinese Popular Religion and Spirits Mediums in Penang, Malaysia.Stanford University Press.pp. 25–30.ISBN0-8047-5292-3.
  11. ^Uayan, Jean (June 2004)."Chap Chay Lo Mi: Disentangling the Chinese-Filipino Worldview"(PDF).Journal of Asian Mission.2.6(6): 183–194. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 17 June 2006.Retrieved7 May2012.
  12. ^"Phỉ luật tân phật quang sơn vạn niên tự Fo Guang Shan Mabuhay Temple".fgsphilippines.org.
  13. ^Daoism and Scientific CivilizationArchived2007-08-22 at theWayback Machine
  14. ^"Neo-Confucian Philosophy – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy".www.iep.utm.edu.
  15. ^Tan, Chee-Beng, ed. (2014).Chinese Overseas: religions, identity and transnational networks.[S.l.]: World Scientific.ISBN978-9814583909.Retrieved30 January2016.
  16. ^Chu, Richard T. (2012).Chinese and Chinese Mestizos of Manila: Family, Identity, and Culture, 1860s-1930s.BRILL. p. 191.ISBN9789047426851.
  17. ^Malanes, Maurice (13 October 2010)."Keeper of Chinese tradition".Philippine Daily Inquirer.Retrieved28 November2020.
  18. ^"Feast of Ma-cho".alineang.blogspot.com.28 September 2006.
  19. ^Bernard Formoso.De Jiao - A Religious Movement in Contemporary China and Overseas: Purple Qi from the East.National University of Singapore, 2010.ISBN978-9971-69-492-0
  20. ^Yoshihara, Kazuo (26 August 1988). "Dejiao: A Chinese Religion in Southeast Asia".Japanese Journal of Religious Studies.15(2/3): 199–221.JSTOR30233386.
  21. ^Chee Beng Tan.The Development and Distribution of Dejiao Associations in Malaysia and Singapore, A Study on a Religious Organization.Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Occasional Paper n. 79. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1985.ISBN978-9971988142(Note: Book review has a typo in the ISBN)
  22. ^abVincent Goossaert, David Palmer.The Religious Question in Modern China.University of Chicago Press, 2011.ISBN0226304167p. 108

Further reading

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