Wikipedia

Coloureds

(Redirected fromColoured)
"Coloured" redirects here. For the component ethnic group originating in the Cape, seeCape Coloureds.For usage of the term outside Southern Africa, seeColored.For other uses, seeColor (disambiguation).

Coloureds(Afrikaans:Kleurlinge) refers to members ofmultiracialethniccommunities inSouth Africa,Namibiaand to a lesser extent,ZimbabweandZambiawho have ancestry from African, European, and Asian people. The intermixing of different races began in theDutch Cape Colonyof South Africa, with European settlers intermixing with the indigenous Khoi tribes, and Asian slaves of the region. Later various other European nationals also contributed to the growing mixed race people, who would later be officially classified as coloured by theapartheidgovernment in the 1950s.[7][8]

Coloureds

An extended Coloured family with roots inCape Town,KimberleyandPretoria
Total population
5,600,000~ in Southern Africa
Regions with significant populations
South Africa,Namibia,Botswana,Zimbabwe
South Africa5,052,349 (2022 census)[1]
Namibia107,855 (2023 census)[2][a]
Zimbabwe14,130 (2022 census)[3]
Zambia3,000 (2012 census)[4]
Languages
Afrikaans,
English,IsiXhosa,Setswana[5]
Religion
PredominantlyChristianity,minorityIslam
Related ethnic groups
Africans,Mulatto,White South Africans,Afrikaners,Boers,Cape Dutch,Cape Coloureds,Cape Malays,Griquas,San people,Khoikhoi,Zulu,Xhosa,Saint Helenians,Rehoboth Basters,Tswana
Coloured people as a proportion of the total population in South Africa.
  • 0–20%
  • 20–40%
  • 40–60%
  • 60–80%
  • 80–100%
Density of the Coloured population in South Africa.
  • <1 /km2
  • 1–3 /km2
  • 3–10 /km2
  • 10–30 /km2
  • 30–100 /km2
  • 100–300 /km2
  • 300–1000 /km2
  • 1000–3000 /km2
  • >3000 /km2
A genetic clustering of South African Coloured and five source populations.[6]Each vertical bar represents individual.

Colouredwas a legally definedracial classificationduringapartheidreferring to anyone not white or of the blackBantutribes, which effectively largely meant people of colour.[8][9]

In theWestern Cape,a distinctiveCape Colouredand affiliatedCape Malayculture developed. Genetic studies suggest the group has the highest levels of mixed ancestry in the world.

The majority of coloureds are found in the western cape but are prevalent throughout the country. InCape Town,they form 43.2% of the total population, according to theSouth African National Census of 2011.[10]: 11, 57 

The apartheid-eraPopulation Registration Act, 1950and subsequent amendments, codified the Coloured identity and defined its subgroups, including Cape Coloureds and Malays.Indian South Africanswere initially classified under the act as a subgroup of Coloured.[11]As a consequence of Apartheid policies and despite the abolition of the Population Registration Act in 1991, Coloureds are regarded as one of four race groups in South Africa. These groups (blacks,whites,Coloureds and Indians) still tend to have strong racial identities and to classify themselves and others as members of these race groups.[9][8]The classification continues to persist in government policy, to an extent, as a result of attempts at redress such asBlack Economic EmpowermentandEmployment Equity.[8][12][13]

Ancestral Background

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Adam Kok III,leader of the Coloured Griqua People

The Coloured / Malay community is predominantly descended from numerousinterracial sexual unions,primarily betweenWestern Europeanmen with Khoisan, Indian and Asian women in theCape Colonyfrom the 17th century onwards.[14][15]The intermixing of different races began in the Cape province of South Africa during the 17th and 18th centuries, theDutch east indiesenslaved people from Asian regions, including; Indonesia, Malaysia and India. These individuals were brought to the Cape Colony to work on farms, in households, as they were enslaved laborer's. There is a significant genetic mixture of European, African and (Indian) Asian DNA in the modern ethnic group of Coloured people. Thus forced into their own communities and therefore created a generational mix of people and are to date an ethnic group.

A ten year study of genetics worldwide noted the Coloured community has highest levels of mixed ancestry anywhere, including African, European, Southeast Asian and South Indian contributions.[16][17]

A diverse heritage including Indigenous AfricanKhoisan,European settlers (Dutch,French,British) Asian slaves (mainly fromIndonesia,MalaysiaandIndia)

In addition to African, European and Asian ancestry, Coloured people had some portion ofSpanishorPortugueseancestry. In the early 19th century some immigrants from Brazil arrived in South Africa as sailors, traders or refugees, and some intermarried with local mixed race (Coloured) communities. Also TheCanary islands(Spain), located off the northwest coast of Africa, were a Spanish colony, and during the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch east India Company and other European powers brought enslaved people from the Canary Islands to South Africa, particularly to the Cape Colony (now known as South Africa). TheDutch east India companyship "Het Gelderland", which arrived at the Cape in 1671 with 174 slaves from the Canary Islands and The Portuguese ship, "Sao Jose" which was captured by the Dutch in 1713 and brought to the Cape with slaves from the Canary Islands. These enslaved people were forced to work on farms, in households, and in other industries and many were subjected to harsh conditions and treatment. The intermixing among European men and Spanish and Portuguese women's descendants are part of the diverse Coloured communities in South Africa. It is however important to note that Spanish and Portuguese ancestry is not a dominant feature amongst the Coloured identity in South Africa, Namibia and Zimbabwe. Individual family histories and ancestry may vary widely while the African, European and Asian ancestry is dominant amongst Coloured people from Africa.[18][19]

Zimbabwean Coloureds are descended fromShonaorNdebele,British andAfrikanersettlers, as well as Arab and Asian people.Griqua,on the other hand, are descendants ofKhoisanwomen and AfrikanerTrekboers.Despite these major differences, as both groups have ancestry from more than onenaturalisedracial group, they are classified ascolouredin the South African context. Such mixed-race people did not necessarily self-identify this way; some preferred to call themselvesblackorKhoisanor justSouth African.[citation needed]

The Griqua were subjected to an ambiguity of othercreolepeople within Southern African social order. According to Nurse and Jenkins (1975), the leader of this "mixed" group,Adam Kok I,was a former slave of the Dutch governor who wasmanumittedand provided land outside Cape Town in the eighteenth century.[20]With territories beyond theDutch East India Company's administration, Kok provided refuge to deserting soldiers, runaway slaves, and remaining members of variousKhoikhoitribes.[18]In South Africa and many neighbouring countries, the white minority governments historically segregated Africans from Europeans after settlement had progressed, and increasingly classified allmixed racepeople together into a third group, despite their numerous ethnic and national differences in ancestry. The imperial andapartheidgovernments categorized them as Coloured. In addition, other distinctly homogeneous ethnic groups also traditionally viewed the mixed-race populations as a separate group, and a growing number of mixed-race people also embraced a shared identity.

During theapartheid erain South Africa of the second half of the 20th century, the government used the term "Coloured" to describe one of the four main racial groups it defined by law (the fourth was "Asian," later "Indian" ). This was an effort to imposewhite supremacyand maintain racial divisions. Individuals were classified asWhite South Africans(formally classified as "European" ),Black South Africans(formally classified as "Native", "Bantu" or simply "African" and comprising the majority of the population), Coloureds (mixed-race) andIndians(formally classified as "Asian" ).[8]The census in South Africa during 1911 played a significant role in defining racial identities in the country. One of the most noteworthy aspects of this census was the instructions given to enumerators on how to classify individuals into different racial categories. The category of "coloured persons" was used to refer to all people of mixed race, and this category included various ethnic groups such asHottentots,Bushmen,Cape Malays,Griquas,Korannas,Creoles,Negroes,andCape Coloureds.

Of particular importance is the fact that the instruction to classify "coloured persons" as a distinct racial group included individuals of African descent, commonly referred to asNegroes.Therefore, it is important to note that Cape Coloureds, as a group of mixed-race individuals, also have African ancestry and can be considered as part of the broaderAfrican diaspora.[21]

Although the apartheid government recognised various coloured subgroups, including the Cape Malays and Cape Coloureds, the Coloured population, was for many purposes treated as a single group, despite their varying ancestries and cultures. Also during apartheid, many Griqua began to self-identify asColouredsduring the apartheid era, because of the benefits of such classification. For example, Coloureds did not have to carry adompas(a pass, an identity document designed to limit the movements of the black population), while the Griqua, who were seen as an indigenous African group, though heavily mixed, did.

Colin speaking Afrikaans.

In the 21st century, Coloured people constitute a plurality of the population in the provinces ofWestern Cape(48.8%), and a large minority in theNorthern Cape(40.3%), both areas of centuries of mixing among the populations. In theEastern Cape,they make up 8.3% of the population. Most speakAfrikaans,as they were generally descendants of Dutch and Afrikaner men and grew up in their society. About twenty percent of the Coloured speak English as their mother tongue, mostly those of the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. Virtually allCape TownColoureds are bilingual.[22][23]

Genetics

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At least one genetic study indicates that Cape Coloureds have ancestries from the following ethnic groups. Not all Coloureds in South Africa had the same ancestry.[24]

It is important to note here that genetic reference cluster term "Khoisan" itself refers to a colonially admixed population cluster, hence the concatenation, and is not a straightforward reference to ancient African pastoralist and hunter ancestry, which is often demarcated by the L0 haplogroup ancestry common in the general South African native population which is also integral part of other aboriginal genetic reference cluster terms like "South-East African Bantu".[25]

History

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Pre-apartheid era

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Coloured people played an important role in the struggle against apartheid and its predecessor policies. TheAfrican Political Organisation,established in 1902, had an exclusively Coloured membership; its leaderAbdullah Abdurahmanrallied Coloured political efforts for many years.[26]Many Coloured people later joined theAfrican National Congressand theUnited Democratic Front.Whether in these organisations or others, many Coloured people were active in the fight against apartheid.

The political rights of Coloured people varied by location and over time. In the 19th century they theoretically had similar rights to Whites in theCape Colony(though income and property qualifications affected them disproportionately). In theTransvaal Republicor theOrange Free State,they had few rights. Coloured members were elected toCape Town's municipal authority (including, for many years, Abdurahman). The establishment of theUnion of South Africagave Coloured people the franchise, although by 1930 they were restricted to electing White representatives. They conducted frequent voting boycotts in protest. Such boycotts may have contributed to the victory of theNational Partyin 1948. It carried out an apartheid programme that stripped Coloured people of their remaining voting powers.

The term "kaffir"is a racial slur used to refer to Black African people in South Africa. While it is still used against black people, it is not as prevalent as it is against coloured people.[27][28]

Apartheid era

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Explanation of South African identity numbers in an identity document during apartheid in terms of official White, Coloured and Indian population subgroups

Coloured people were subject to forced relocation. For instance, the government relocated Coloured from the urban Cape Town areas ofDistrict Six,which was later bulldozed. Other areas they were forced to leave includedConstantia,Claremont,Simon's Town.Inhabitants were moved to racially designated sections of the metropolitan area on theCape Flats.Additionally, under apartheid, Coloured people received education inferior to that of Whites. It was, however, better than that provided to Black South Africans.

J. G. Strijdom,known as "the Lion of the North", continued the impetus to restrict Coloured rights, in order to entrench the new-wonNational Partymajority. Coloured participation on juries was removed in 1954, and efforts toabolish their participation onthe common voters' roll in theCape Provinceescalated drastically; it wasaccomplished in 1956by a supermajority amendment to the1951 Separate Representation of Voters Act,passed by Malan but held back by the judiciary as unconstitutional under theSouth Africa Act,the Union's effective constitution. In order to bypass this safeguard, enforced since 1909 to ensureColoured political rights in the then-British Cape Colony,Strijdom's government passed legislation to expand the number of Senate seats from 48 to 89. All of the additional 41 members hailed from the National Party, increasing its representation in the Senate to 77 in total. The Appellate Division Quorum Bill increased the number of judges necessary for constitutional decisions in the Appeal Court from five to eleven. Strijdom, knowing that he had his two-thirds majority, held a joint sitting of parliament in May 1956. The entrenchment clause regarding the Coloured vote, known as the South Africa Act, were thus eliminated and the Separate Representation of Voters Act passed, now successfully.

Coloureds were placed on a separate voters' roll from the 1958 election to the House of Assembly and forward. They could elect four Whites to represent them in theHouse of Assembly.Two Whites would be elected to theCape Provincial Counciland thegovernor generalcould appoint onesenator.Both blacks and Whites opposed this measure, particularly from theUnited Partyand more liberal opposition. TheTorch Commandowas very prominent, while theBlack Sash(White women, uniformly dressed, standing on street corners with placards) also made themselves heard. In this way, the question of the Coloured vote became one of the first measures of the regime's unscrupulous nature and flagrant willingness to manipulate its inheritedWestminster system.It would remain in power until 1994.

Many Coloureds refused to register for the new voters' roll and the number of Coloured voters dropped dramatically. In the next election, only 50.2% of them voted. They had no interest in voting for White representatives — an activity which many of them saw as pointless, and only persisted for ten years.

Under thePopulation Registration Act,as amended, Coloureds were formally classified into various subgroups, includingCape Coloureds,Cape Malaysand "other coloured". A portion of the smallChinese South Africancommunity was also classified as a coloured subgroup.[29][30]

In 1958, the government established the Department of Coloured Affairs, followed in 1959 by the Union for Coloured Affairs. The latter had 27 members and served as an advisory link between the government and the Coloured people.

The 1964Coloured Persons Representative Councilturned out to be a constitutional hitch[clarification needed]which never really got going. In 1969, the Coloureds elected forty onto the council to supplement the twenty nominated by the government, taking the total number to sixty.

Following the1983 referendum,in which 66.3% of White voters supported the change, theConstitutionwas reformed to allow the Coloured andIndianminorities limited participation in separate and subordinate Houses in atricameralParliament.This was part of a change in which the Coloured minority was to be allowed limited rights and self-governance in "Coloured areas", but continuing the policy of denationalising the Black majority and making them involuntary citizens of independent homelands. The internal rationale was that South African whites, more numerous at the time than Coloureds and Indians combined, could bolster its popular support and divide the democratic opposition while maintaining a working majority. The effort largely failed, with the 1980s seeing increased disintegration of civil society and numerous states of emergency, with violence increasing from all racial groups. The separate arrangements were removed by the negotiations which took place from 1990 tohold the first universal election.

Post-apartheid era

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During the 1994 all-race elections, Coloured people voted heavily for the whiteNational Party,which in its first contest with a non-white majority won 20% of the vote and a majority in the newWestern Capeprovince – much due to Cape Coloured support. The National Party recast itself as theNew National Partyafter De Klerk's departure in 1996, partly to attract non-White voters, and grew closer to the ANC. This political alliance, often perplexing to outsiders, has sometimes been explained in terms of the culture and language shared by White and Coloured New National Party members, who both spoke Afrikaans. In addition, both groups opposed affirmative action programmes that might give preference to Black South Africans, and some Coloured people feared giving up older privileges, such as access to municipal jobs, ifAfrican National Congressgained leadership in the government. After the absorption of the NNP into the ANC in 2005, Coloured voters have generally drawn to theDemocratic Alliance,with some opting for minor parties such asVryheidsfrontandPatricia de Lille'sIndependent Democrats,with lukewarm support for the ANC.

Since the late 20th century, Colouredidentity politicshave grown in influence. The Western Cape has been a site of the rise of opposition parties, such as theDemocratic Alliance(DA). The Western Cape is considered as an area in which this party might gain ground against the dominant African National Congress. TheDemocratic Alliancedrew in some former New National Party voters and won considerable Coloured support. The New National Party collapsed in the 2004 elections. Coloured support aided the Democratic Alliance's victory in the 2006 Cape Town municipal elections.

Patricia de Lille, who became mayor ofCape Townin 2011 on the platform of the now-defunctIndependent Democrats,does not use the label Coloured but many observers would consider her as Coloured by visible appearance. The Independent Democrats party sought the Coloured vote and gained significant ground in the municipal and local elections in 2006, particularly in districts in the Western Cape with high proportions of Coloured residents. The firebrandPeter Marais(formerly a provincial leader of the New National Party) has sought to portray hisNew Labour Partyas the political voice for Coloured people.

Coloured people supported and were members of the African National Congress before, during and after the apartheid era: notable politicians includeEbrahim Rasool(previously Western Cape premier),Beatrice Marshoff,John Schuurman,Allan HendrickseandTrevor Manuel,longtime Minister of Finance. The Democratic Alliance won control over the Western Cape during the 2009 National and Provincial Elections and subsequently brokered an alliance with the Independent Democrats.

The ANC has had some success in winning Coloured votes, particularly among labour-affiliated and middle-class Coloured voters. Some Coloureds express distrust of the ANC with the comment, saying that the Coloured were considered "not white enough under apartheid and not black enough under the ANC."[31] In the 2004 election, voter apathy was high in historically Coloured areas.[32]The ANC faces the dilemma of having to balance the increasingly nationalistic economic aspirations of its core black African support base, with its ambition to regain control of the Western Cape, which would require support from Coloureds.[13]

Coloureds in other countries of Southern Africa

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Racial-demographic map of South Africa published by theCIAin 1979, with data from the 1970 South African census.

The termColouredis also used inNamibia,to describe persons ofmixed race,specifically part Khoisan, and part European. TheBastersof Namibia constitute a separateethnic groupthat are sometimes considered a sub-group of the Coloured population of that country. Under South African rule, the policies and laws of apartheid were extended to what was then calledSouth West Africa.In Namibia,Colouredswere treated by the government in a way comparable to that of South African Coloureds.

InZimbabweand to a lesser extentZambia,the term Coloured orGoffalwas used to refer to people of mixed race. Most are descended from mixed African and British, or African and Indian, progenitors. Some Coloured families descended from Cape Coloured migrants from South Africa who had children with local women. UnderRhodesia's predominantly white government, Coloureds had more privileges than black Africans, including full voting rights, but still faced social discrimination. The term Coloured is also used inEswatini.

Culture

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Lifestyle

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As far as family life, housing, eating habits, clothing and so on are concerned, the Christian Coloureds generally maintain a Western lifestyle. Marriages are strictly monogamous, although extramarital and premarital sexual relationships can occur and are perceived differently from family to family. Among the working and agrarian classes, permanent relationships are often officially ratified only after a while if at all.

The average family size of six does not differ from those of other Western families and, as with the latter, is generally related to socio-economic status. Extended families are common. Coloured children are often expected to refer to any extended relatives as their "auntie" or "uncle" as a formality.

While many affluent families live in large, modern, and sometimes luxurious homes, many urban coloured people rely on state-owned economic and sub-economic housing.

Cultural aspects

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There are many singing and choir associations as well as orchestras in the Coloured community. The Eoan Group Theatre Company performs opera and ballet in Cape Town. TheKaapse Klopsecarnival, held annually on 2 January in Cape Town, and the Cape Malay choir and orchestral performances are an important part of the city's holiday season. Kaapse Klopse consists of several competing groups that have been singing and dancing through Cape Town's streets on New Year's Day earlier this year. Nowadays the drumlines in cheerful, brightly Coloured costumes perform in a stadium. Christmas festivities take place in a sacred atmosphere but are no less vivid, mainly including choirs and orchestras that sing and play Christmas songs in the streets. In the field of performing arts and literature, several Coloureds performed with the CAPAB (Cape Performing Arts Board) ballet and opera company, and the community yielded three major Afrikaans poets the well-known poets, Adam Small,S.V. Petersen,andP.J. Philander.In 1968, the Culture and Recreation Council was established to promote the cultural activities of the Coloured Community.

Education

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Until 1841 missionary societies provided all the school facilities for Coloured children.

All South African children are expected to attend school from the age of seven to sixteen years, at the minimum.

Economic activities

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Initially, Coloureds were mainly semi-skilled and unskilled labourers who, as builders, masons, carpenters and painters, made an important contribution to the early construction industry in the Cape. Many were also fishermen and farm workers, and the latter had an important share in the development of the wine, fruit and grain farms in the Western Cape.

The Malays were, and still are, skilled furniture makers, dressmakers and coopers. In recent years, more and more Coloureds have been working in the manufacturing and construction industry. There are still many Coloured fishermen, and most Coloureds in the countryside are farm workers and even farmers. The largest percentage of economically active Coloureds is found in the manufacturing industry. About 35% of the economically active Coloured women are employed in clothing, textile, food and other factories.

Another important field of work is the service sector, while an ever-increasing number of Coloureds operate in administrative, clerical and sales positions. All the more professional and managerial posts are. In order to stimulate the economic development of Coloureds, the Coloured Development Corporation was established in 1962. The corporation provided capital to businessmen, offered training courses and undertook the establishment of shopping centres, factories and the like.

Distribution

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A majority of those who identify as Coloured live in the Western Cape, where they make up almost half of the province's population. In the 2022 South African census the distribution of the group per province was as follows:[1]

Province Population % of Coloureds % of province
Eastern Cape 547,741 10.84 7.58
Free State 78,141 1.55 2.64
Gauteng 443,857 8.79 2.94
KwaZulu-Natal 183,019 3.62 1.47
Limpopo 18,409 0.36 0.28
Mpumalanga 32,100 0.64 0.62
North West 60,720 1.20 1.60
Northern Cape 563,605 11.16 41.58
Western Cape 3,124,757 61.85 42.07
Total 5,052,349 100.0 8.15

Language

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Coloured people were some of the first speakers ofAfrikaansalong with European (Dutch, German and French) colonists and African and Asian slave descendents. The language was originally an informal dialect ofDutchthat was spoken amongst the different ethnic slaves to understand each other and also converse with their Dutch masters. Later the language was adopted by whiteAfrikaners.According to the 2011 South African census, more than 95% of those who identified as Coloured spoke either Afrikaans (74.6%) or English (20.5%) natively, while 4.93% reported a different first language, the most common beingSetswanawhich was spoken by 0.87% of the group.[33]

Language Number in 2011 %
Afrikaans 3,442,164 74.58%
English 945,847 20.49%
Setswana 40,351 0.87%
isiXhosa 25,340 0.55%
isiZulu 23,797 0.52%
Sesotho 23,230 0.50%
Sign language 11,891 0.26%
isiNdebele 8,225 0.18%
Sepedi 5,642 0.12%
siSwati 4,056 0.09%
Tshivenda 2,847 0.06%
Xitsonga 2,268 0.05%
Sign language 5,702 0.12%
Not applicable 74,043 1.60%
Total 4,616,401 100.0%

Cuisine

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See also:South African cuisine

Numerous South African cuisines can be traced back to Coloured people.Bobotie,snoekbased dishes,koe'sisters,bredies,Malayrotiandgatsbiesare staple diets of Coloureds and other South Africans as well.[34]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^Includes 45,629Basters.

References

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  27. ^Adhikari, Mohamed, editor. Burdened by Race: Coloured Identities in Southern Africa. UCT Press, 2013, pp. 69, 124, 203 ISBN 978-1-92051-660-4https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/c0a95c41-a983-49fc-ac1f-7720d607340d/628130.pdf.
  28. ^Mathabane, M. (1986). Kaffir Boy: The True Story of a Black Youth's Coming of Age in Apartheid South Africa. Simon & Schuster. (Chapter 2)
  29. ^An appalling "science"
  30. ^ Graham Leach,South Africa: no easy path to peace(1986),p. 70:Population Registration Act, 1959 cape coloured
  31. ^Welsh, David (2005)."A hollowing-out of our democracy?".Helen Suzman Foundation. Archived fromthe originalon 2011-07-25.Retrieved2009-10-23.
  32. ^Faull, Jonathan (June 21, 2004)."Election Synopsis - How the West was Won (and Lost) - May 2004".Institute for Democracy in Africa. Archived fromthe originalon June 18, 2008.Retrieved2009-10-23.
  33. ^Statistics South Africa: Interactive data "SuperWEB2"; Census 2011 Data(Login required)
  34. ^Lagardien, Zainab (2008).Traditional Cape Malay Cooking.Struik Publishers.ISBN978-1-77007-671-6.

Bibliography

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  • Gekonsolideerde Algemene Bibliografie: Die Kleurlinge Van Suid-Afrika,South Africa Department of Coloured Affairs, Inligtingsafdeling, 1960, 79 p.
  • Mohamed Adhikari,Not White Enough, Not Black Enough: Racial Identity in the South African Coloured Community,Ohio University Press, 2005, 252 p.ISBN9780896802445
  • Vernie A. February,Mind Your Colour: The "coloured" Stereotype in South African Literature,Routledge, 1981, 248 p.ISBN9780710300027
  • R. E. Van der Ross,100 Questions about Coloured South Africans,1993, 36 p.ISBN9780620178044
  • Philippe Gervais-Lambony,La nouvelle Afrique du Sud, problèmes politiques et sociaux,la Documentation française,1998
  • François-Xavier Fauvelle-Aymar,Histoire de l'Afrique du Sud,2006, Seuil

Novels

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