Cuba,[c]officially theRepublic of Cuba,[d]is anisland country,comprising the island of Cuba (largest island),Isla de la Juventud,and4,195 islands,isletsandcayssurrounding the main island. It is located where the northernCaribbean Sea,Gulf of Mexico,and Atlantic Ocean meet. Cuba is located east of theYucatán Peninsula(Mexico), south of bothFloridaandthe Bahamas,west ofHispaniola(Haiti/Dominican Republic), and north ofJamaicaand theCayman Islands.Havanais the largest city and capital. Cuba is thethird-most populouscountry in theCaribbeanafterHaitiand theDominican Republic,with about 10 million inhabitants. It is the largest country in the Caribbean by area.
Republic of Cuba República de Cuba(Spanish) | |
|---|---|
| Motto:Patria o Muerte, Venceremos ( "Homeland or Death, We Shall Overcome!" )[1] | |
| Anthem:La Bayamesa ( "The Bayamo Song" )[2] | |
 Cuba, shown in dark green | |
| Capital and largest city | Havana 23°8′N82°23′W/ 23.133°N 82.383°W |
| Official languages | Spanish |
| Other spoken languages | Haitian Creole English Lucumí Galician Corsican |
| Ethnic groups |
|
| Religion (2020)[4] |
|
| Demonym(s) | Cuban |
| Government | UnitaryMarxist–Leninistone-partysocialist republic[5][6] |
| Miguel Díaz-Canel | |
| Salvador Valdés Mesa | |
| Manuel Marrero Cruz | |
| Esteban Lazo Hernández | |
| Legislature | National Assembly of People's Power |
| Independence from Spain and the United States | |
| 10 October 1868 | |
| 24 February 1895 | |
•Recognized(Handed over to the United States from Spain) | 10 December 1898 |
•Republicdeclared (Independence from United States) | 20 May 1902 |
| 26 July 1953 – 1 January 1959 | |
| 10 April 2019 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 110,860[7]km2(42,800 sq mi) (104th) |
• Water (%) | 0.94 |
| Population | |
• 2023 estimate |  10,055,968[8][9] |
• 2022 census | 11,089,511[10](85th) |
• Density | 90.7/km2(234.9/sq mi) (80th) |
| GDP(PPP) | 2015 estimate |
• Total | $254.865 billion[11] |
• Per capita | $22,237[11][12] |
| GDP(nominal) | 2022 estimate |
• Total |  $147.194 billion[13](60th) |
• Per capita | $13,128[13](64th) |
| Gini(2000) | 38.0[14] medium inequality |
| HDI(2022) | 0.764[15] high(85th) |
| Currency | Cuban peso(CUP) |
| Time zone | UTC−5(CST) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC−4(CDT) |
| Calling code | +53 |
| ISO 3166 code | CU |
| Internet TLD | .cu |
The territory that is now Cuba was inhabited as early as the4th millennium BC,with theGuanahatabeyandTaínopeoples inhabiting the area at the time ofSpanish colonizationin the 15th century.[16]It was then acolonyofSpain,through theabolitionofslaveryin 1886, until theSpanish–American Warof 1898, when Cuba wasoccupied by the United Statesand gainedindependencein 1902. In 1940, Cuba implemented anew constitution,but mounting political unrest culminated in the1952 Cuban coup d'étatand the subsequent dictatorship ofFulgencio Batista.[17]The Batista government was overthrown in January 1959 by the26th of July Movementduring theCuban Revolution.That revolution established communist rule under the leadership ofFidel Castro.[18][19]The country was a point of contention during theCold Warbetween theSoviet Unionand the United States, and theCuban Missile Crisisof 1962 is widely considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating intonuclear war.Following thedissolution of the Soviet Union,Cuba faced a severe economic downturn in the 1990s, known as theSpecial Period.In 2008, Fidel Castro retired after 49 years;Raúl Castrowas elected his successor. Raúl Castro retired as president in 2018 andMiguel Díaz-Canelwas elected president by the National Assembly followingparliamentary elections.Raúl Castro retired asFirst Secretary of the Communist Partyin 2021 and Díaz-Canel was elected.
Cuba is asocialist state,in which the role of theCommunist Partyis enshrined in theConstitution.Cuba has anauthoritariangovernment where political opposition is not permitted.[20][21]Censorshipis extensive and independent journalism is repressed;[22][23][24]Reporters Without Bordershas characterized Cuba as one of the worst countries for press freedom.[25][24]Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America.[26]It is amultiethnic countrywhosepeople,cultureand customs derive from diverse origins, including the Taíno Ciboney peoples, thelong periodof Spanish colonialism, the introduction ofenslaved Africansand a closerelationship with the Soviet Unionduring the Cold War.
Cuba is a founding member of the United Nations,G77,Non-Aligned Movement,Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States,ALBA,andOrganization of American States.It has one of the world's fewplanned economies,andits economyis dominated bytourismand the exports of skilled labor, sugar, tobacco, and coffee. Cuba has historically—before and during communist rule—performed better than other countries in the region on several socioeconomic indicators, such as literacy,[27][28]infant mortality and life expectancy. Cuba has auniversal health caresystem which provides free medical treatment to all Cuban citizens,[29][30]although challenges include low salaries for doctors, poor facilities, poor provision of equipment, and the frequent absence of essential drugs.[31][32]A 2023 study by the Cuban Observatory of Human Rights (OCDH), estimated 88% of the population is living in extreme poverty.[33]The traditional diet is of international concern due to micronutrient deficiencies and lack of diversity. As highlighted by theWorld Food Programme(WFP) of the United Nations, rationed food meets only a fraction of daily nutritional needs for many Cubans, leading to health issues.[34]
Etymology
Historians believe the nameCubacomes from theTaíno language;however, "its exact derivation [is] unknown".[35]The exact meaning of the name is unclear, but it may be translated either as 'where fertile land is abundant' (cubao),[36]or 'great place' (coabana).
History
Pre-Columbian era
Humans first settled Cuba around 6,000 years ago, descending from migrations from northern South America or Central America.[37]The arrival of humans on Cuba is associated with extinctions of the islands native fauna, particularly itsendemic sloths.[38]TheArawakan-speaking ancestors of theTaínopeople arrived in the Caribbean in a separate migration from South America around 1,700 years ago. Unlike the previous settlers of Cuba, the Taíno extensively produced pottery and engaged in intensive agriculture.[37]The earliest evidence of the Taíno people on Cuba dates to the9th centuryAD.[39]Descendants of the first settlers of Cuba persisted on the western part of the island until Columbian contact, where they were recorded as theGuanahatabeypeople, who lived a hunter gatherer lifestyle.[40][37]
Spanish colonization and rule (1492–1898)
After first landing on an island then calledGuanahanion 12 October 1492,[41]Christopher Columbuslanded on Cuba on 27 October 1492, and landing in the northeastern coast on 28 October.[42]Columbus claimed the island for the newKingdom of Spain[43]and named itIsla Juana( "John's Island" ) afterJohn, Prince of Asturias.[44]
In 1511, the firstSpanish settlementwas founded byDiego Velázquez de CuéllaratBaracoa.Other settlements soon followed, includingSan Cristobal de la Habana,founded in 1514 (southern coast of the island) and then in 1519 (current place), which later became the capital (1607). The IndigenousTaínowere forced to work under theencomiendasystem,[45]which resembled thefeudal systemin medieval Europe.[46]Within a century, theIndigenous peoplefaced high incidence of mortality due to multiple factors, primarily Eurasianinfectious diseases,to which they had no natural resistance (immunity), aggravated by the harsh conditions of the repressive colonial subjugation.[47]In 1529, ameaslesoutbreak killed two-thirds of those few Natives who had previously survivedsmallpox.[48][49]
On 18 May 1539, conquistadorHernando de Sotodeparted from Havana with some 600 followers into a vast expedition through theAmerican Southeast,in search of gold, treasure, fame and power.[50]On 1 September 1548, Gonzalo Perez de Angulo was appointed governor of Cuba. He arrived in Santiago, Cuba, on 4 November 1549, and immediately declared the liberty of all Natives.[51]He became Cuba's first permanent governor to reside in Havana instead of Santiago, and he built Havana's first church made of masonry.[52][e]
By 1570, most residents of Cuba comprised a mixture of Spanish, African, and Taíno heritages.[54]Cuba developed slowly and, unlike the plantation islands of the Caribbean, had a diversified agriculture. Most importantly, the colony developed as an urbanized society that primarily supported the Spanish colonial empire. By the mid-18th century, there were 50,000 slaves on the island, compared to 60,000 inBarbadosand 300,000 inVirginia;as well as 450,000 inSaint-Domingue,all of which had large-scale sugarcane plantations.[55]
TheSeven Years' War,which erupted in 1754 across three continents, eventually arrived in theSpanish Caribbean.Spain'salliance with the Frenchpitched them intodirect conflictwith theBritish,and in 1762, a British expedition consisting of dozens of ships and thousands of troops set out from Portsmouth to capture Cuba. The British arrived on 6 June, and by August, had placedHavana under siege.[56]When Havana surrendered, the admiral of the British fleet,George Pocockand the commander of the land forcesGeorge Keppel,the 3rdEarl of Albemarle,entered the city, and took control of the western part of the island. The British immediately opened up trade with theirNorth Americanand Caribbean colonies, causing a rapid transformation of Cuban society.[56]
Though Havana, which had become the third-largest city in the Americas, was to enter an era of sustained development and increasing ties with North America during this period, the British occupation of the city proved short-lived. Pressure from London on sugar merchants, fearing a decline in sugar prices, forced negotiations with the Spanish over the captured territories.[clarification needed]Less than a year after Britain captured Havana, it signed the1763 Treaty of Paristogether with France and Spain, ending the Seven Years' War. The treaty gave Florida to Britain in exchange for Cuba.[f]Cubans constituted one of the many diverse units which fought alongside Spanish and Floridan forces during theconquest of British-controlled West Florida(1779–81).
The largest factor for the growth of Cuba's commerce in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century was theHaitian Revolution.When the enslaved peoples of what had been the Caribbean's richest colony freed themselves through violent revolt, Cuban planters perceived the region's changing circumstances with both a sense of fear and opportunity. They were afraid because of the prospect that slaves might revolt in Cuba as well, and numerous prohibitions during the 1790s of the sale of slaves in Cuba who had previously been enslaved in French colonies underscored this anxiety. The planters saw opportunity, however, because they thought that they could exploit the situation by transforming Cuba into the slave society and sugar-producing "pearl of the Antilles" that Haiti had been before the revolution.[57]As the historianAda Ferrerhas written, "At a basic level, liberation in Saint-Domingue helped entrench its denial in Cuba. As slavery and colonialism collapsed in the French colony, the Spanish island underwent transformations that were almost the mirror image of Haiti's."[58]Estimates suggest that between 1790 and 1820 some 325,000 Africans were imported to Cuba as slaves, which was four times the amount that had arrived between 1760 and 1790.[59]
Although a smaller proportion of the population of Cuba was enslaved, at times, slaves arose in revolt. In 1812, theAponte Slave Rebelliontook place, but it was ultimately suppressed.[60]The population of Cuba in 1817 was 630,980 (of which 291,021 were white, 115,691 werefree people of color(mixed-race), and 224,268 black slaves).[61][g]
In part due to Cuban slaves working primarily in urbanized settings, by the 19th century, the practice ofcoartacionhad developed (or "buying oneself out of slavery", a "uniquely Cuban development" ), according to historian Herbert S. Klein.[63]Due to a shortage of white labor, blacks dominated urban industries "to such an extent that when whites in large numbers came to Cuba in the middle of the nineteenth century, they were unable to displace Negro workers."[55]A system of diversified agriculture, with small farms and fewer slaves, served to supply the cities with produce and other goods.[55]
In the 1820s, when the rest of Spain's empire in Latin Americarebelled and formed independent states,Cuba remained loyal to Spain. Its economy was based on serving the empire. By 1860, Cuba had 213,167 free people of color (39% of its non-white population of 550,000).[55][h]
Independence movements
Full independence from Spain was the goal of a rebellion in 1868 led by planterCarlos Manuel de Céspedes.De Céspedes, a sugar planter, freed his slaves to fight with him for an independent Cuba. On 27 December 1868, he issued a decree condemning slavery in theory but accepting it in practice and declaring free any slaves whose masters present them for military service.[64]The 1868 rebellion resulted in a prolonged conflict known as theTen Years' War.A great number of the rebels were volunteers from theDominican Republic,[j]and other countries, as well as numerousChineseindentured servants.[66][k][l]
The United States declined to recognize the new Cuban government, although many European and Latin American nations did so.[69]In 1878, thePact of Zanjónended the conflict, with Spain promising greater autonomy to Cuba.[m]In 1879–80, Cuban patriotCalixto Garcíaattempted to start another war known as theLittle Warbut failed to receive enough support.[71]Slavery in Cubawas abolished in 1875 but the process was completed only in 1886.[72][73]An exiled dissident namedJosé Martífounded the Cuban Revolutionary Party in New York City in 1892. The aim of the party was to achieve Cuban independence from Spain.[74]In January 1895, Martí traveled toMonte CristiandSanto Domingoin the Dominican Republic to join the efforts ofMáximo Gómez.[74]Martí recorded his political views in theManifesto of Montecristi.[75]Fighting against the Spanish armybegan in Cuba on 24 February 1895, but Martí was unable to reach Cuba until 11 April 1895.[74]Martí was killed in theBattle of Dos Rioson 19 May 1895.[74]His death immortalized him as Cuba's national hero.[75]
Around 200,000 Spanish troops outnumbered the much smaller rebel army, which relied mostly onguerrillaandsabotagetactics. The Spaniards began a campaign of suppression. GeneralValeriano Weyler,the military governor of Cuba, herded the rural population into what he calledreconcentrados,described by international observers as "fortified towns". These are often considered the prototype for 20th-centuryconcentration camps.[76]Between 200,000[77]and 400,000 Cuban civilians died from starvation and disease in the Spanish concentration camps, numbers verified by theRed Crossand United States SenatorRedfield Proctor,a formerSecretary of War.American and European protests against Spanish conduct on the island followed.[78]
The U.S. battleshipUSSMainewas sent to protect American interests, but soon after arrival, it exploded in Havana harbor and sank quickly, killing nearly three-quarters of the crew. The cause and responsibility for the sinking of the ship remained unclear after a board of inquiry. Popular opinion in the U.S., fueled by activeyellow press,concluded that the Spanish were to blame and demanded action.[79]Spain and the United States declared war on each other in late April 1898.[n][o]
Republic (1902–1959)
First years (1902–1925)
After theSpanish–American War,Spain and the United States signed theTreaty of Paris (1898),by which Spain cededPuerto Rico,thePhilippines,andGuamto the United States for the sum ofUS$20 million[84]and Cuba became aprotectorateof the United States. Cuba gained formal independence from the U.S. on 20 May 1902, as the Republic of Cuba.[85]Under Cuba's new constitution, the U.S. retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign relations. Under thePlatt Amendment,the U.S. leased theGuantánamo Bay Naval Basefrom Cuba.
Following disputed elections in 1906, the first president,Tomás Estrada Palma,faced an armed revolt by independence war veterans who defeated the meager government forces.[86]The U.S. intervened by occupying Cuba and namedCharles Edward Magoonas Governor for three years. Cuban historians have characterized Magoon's governorship as having introduced political and social corruption.[87]In 1908, self-government was restored whenJosé Miguel Gómezwas elected president, but the U.S. continued intervening in Cuban affairs. In 1912, thePartido Independiente de Colorattempted to establish a separate black republic in Oriente Province,[88]but was suppressed by General Monteagudo with considerable bloodshed.
In 1924,Gerardo Machadowas elected president.[89]During his administration, tourism increased markedly, and American-owned hotels and restaurants were built to accommodate the influx of tourists.[89]The tourist boom led to increases in gambling andprostitution in Cuba.[89]TheWall Street Crash of 1929led to a collapse in the price of sugar, political unrest, and repression.[90]Protesting students, known as the Generation of 1930, turned to violence in opposition to the increasingly unpopular Machado.[90]A general strike (in which the Communist Party sided with Machado),[91]uprisings among sugar workers, and an army revolt forced Machado into exile in August 1933. He was replaced byCarlos Manuel de Céspedes y Quesada.[90]
Revolution of 1933–1940
In September 1933, theSergeants' Revolt,led by SergeantFulgencio Batista,overthrew Céspedes.[92]A five-member executive committee (thePentarchy of 1933) was chosen to head a provisional government.[93]Ramón Grau San Martínwas then appointed as provisional president.[93]Grau resigned in 1934, leaving the way clear for Batista, who dominated Cuban politics for the next 25 years, at first through a series of puppet-presidents.[92]The period from 1933 to 1937 was a time of "virtually unremitting social and political warfare".[94]On balance, during the period 1933–1940 Cuba suffered from fragile political structures, reflected in the fact that it saw three different presidents in two years (1935–1936), and in the militaristic and repressive policies of Batista as Head of the Army.
Constitution of 1940
Anew constitutionwas adopted in 1940, which engineered radical progressive ideas, including the right to labor and health care.[95]Batista was elected president in the same year, holding the post until 1944.[96]He is so far the only non-white Cuban to win the nation's highest political office.[97][98][99]His government carried out major social reforms. Several members of the Communist Party held office under his administration.[100]Cuban armed forces were not greatly involved in combat during World War II—though president Batista did suggest a joint U.S.-Latin American assault onFrancoist Spainto overthrow its authoritarian regime.[101]Cuba lost six merchant ships during the war, and the Cuban Navy was credited with sinking theGerman submarineU-176.[102]
Batista adhered to the 1940 constitution's strictures preventing his re-election.[103]Ramon Grau San Martin was the winner of the next election, in 1944.[96]Grau further corroded the base of the already teetering legitimacy of the Cuban political system, in particular by undermining the deeply flawed, though not entirely ineffectual, Congress and Supreme Court.[104]Carlos Prío Socarrás,a protégé of Grau, became president in 1948.[96]The two terms of the Auténtico Party brought an influx of investment, which fueled an economic boom, raised living standards for all segments of society, and created a middle class in most urban areas.[105]
Coup d'état of 1952
After finishing his term in 1944 Batista lived in Florida, returning to Cuba to run for president in 1952. Facing certain electoral defeat, he led amilitary coupthat preempted the election.[106]Back in power, and receiving financial, military, and logistical support from the United States government, Batista suspended the 1940 Constitution and revoked most political liberties, including theright to strike.He then aligned with the wealthiest landowners who owned the largestsugar plantations,and presided over a stagnating economy that widened the gap between rich and poor Cubans.[107]Batista outlawed the Cuban Communist Party in 1952.[108]After the coup, Cuba had Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios, though about one-third of the population was considered poor and enjoyed relatively little of this consumption.[109]However, in his "History Will Absolve Me"speech, Fidel Castro mentioned that national issues relating to land, industrialization, housing, unemployment, education, and health were contemporary problems.[110]
In 1958, Cuba was a well-advanced country in comparison to other Latin American regions.[111]Cuba was also affected by perhaps the largest labor union privileges in Latin America, including bans on dismissals and mechanization. They were obtained in large measure "at the cost of the unemployed and the peasants", leading to disparities.[112]Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba extended economic regulations enormously, causing economic problems.[97][113]Unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not find jobs.[97]The middle class, which was comparable to that of the United States[how?],became increasingly dissatisfied with unemployment and political persecution. The labor unions, manipulated by the previous government since 1948 through union "yellowness", supported Batista until the very end.[97][98]Batista stayed in power until he resigned in December 1958 under the pressure of the US Embassy and as the revolutionary forces headed by Fidel Castro were winning militarily (Santa Clara city, a strategic point in the middle of the country, fell into the rebels hands on December 31, in a conflict known as theBattle of Santa Clara).[114][115]
Revolution and Communist Party rule (1959–present)
In the 1950s, various organizations, including some advocating armed uprising, competed for public support in bringing about political change.[116]In 1956,Fidel Castroand about 80 supporters landed from the yachtGranmain an attempt to start a rebellion against the Batista government.[116]In 1958, Castro'sJuly 26th Movementemerged as the leading revolutionary group.[116]The U.S. supported Castro by imposing a 1958arms embargoagainst Batista's government. Batista evaded the American embargo and acquired weapons from the Dominican Republic.[p]
By late 1958, the rebels had broken out of theSierra Maestraand launched a generalpopular insurrection.After Castro's fighters capturedSanta Clara,Batista fled with his family to the Dominican Republic on 1 January 1959. Later he went into exile on the Portuguese island of Madeira and finally settled in Estoril, near Lisbon. Fidel Castro's forces entered the capital on 8 January 1959. The liberalManuel Urrutia Lleóbecame the provisional president.[122]
According toAmnesty International,official death sentences from 1959 to 1987 numbered 237 of which all but 21 were carried out.[123]The vast majority of those executed directly following the 1959 Revolution were policemen, politicians, and informers of the Batista regime accused of crimes such as torture and murder, and their public trials and executions had widespread popular support among the Cuban population.[124]
The United States government initially reacted favorably to the Cuban Revolution, seeing it as part of a movement to bring democracy to Latin America.[126]Castro's legalization of the Communist Party and the hundreds of executions of Batista agents, policemen, and soldiers that followed caused a deterioration in the relationship between the two countries.[126]The promulgation of theAgrarian Reform Law,expropriating thousands of acres of farmland (including from large U.S. landholders), further worsened relations.[126][127]In response, between 1960 and 1964 the U.S. imposed a range of sanctions, eventually including a total ban on trade between the countries and a freeze on all Cuban-owned assets in the U.S.[128]In February 1960, Castro signed a commercial agreement with Soviet Vice-PremierAnastas Mikoyan.[126]
In March 1960, U.S. PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowergave his approval to aCIAplan to arm and train a group of Cuban refugees to overthrow the Castro government. The invasion (known as theBay of Pigs Invasion) took place on 14 April 1961, during the term of PresidentJohn F. Kennedy.[127]About 1,400 Cuban exiles disembarked at theBay of Pigs.Cuban troops and local militias defeated the invasion, killing over 100 invaders and taking the remainder prisoner.[127]In January 1962, Cuba was suspended from theOrganization of American States(OAS), and later the same year the OAS started to impose sanctions against Cuba of similar nature to the U.S. sanctions.[129]TheCuban Missile Crisisof October 1962 almost sparkedWorld War III.[130][131]In 1962 American generals proposedOperation Northwoodswhich would entail committing terrorist attacks in American cities and against refugees and falsely blaming the attacks on the Cuban government, manufacturing a reason for the United States to invade Cuba. This plan was rejected by President Kennedy.[132]By 1963, Cuba was moving towards a full-fledged communist system modeled on the USSR.[133]
During the Cold War, Cuban forces were deployed to all corners of Africa, either as military advisors or as combatants.[134]In 1963, Cuba sent 686 troops together with 22 tanks and other military equipment to support Algeria in theSand Waragainst Morocco.[135]The Cuban forces remained in Algeria for over a year, providing training to the Algerian army.[136]In 1964, Cuba organized a meeting of Latin American communists in Havana and stoked acivil warin the capital of the Dominican Republic in 1965, which prompted 20,000 U.S. troops to intervene there.[54]Che Guevaraengaged inguerrilla activities in Africaand was killed in 1967 while attempting to start arevolution in Bolivia.[54]During the 1970s, Fidel Castro dispatched tens of thousands of troops in support ofSoviet-backed warsin Africa. He supported theMPLAin Angola (Angolan Civil War) andMengistu Haile Mariamin Ethiopia (Ogaden War).[137]
In November 1975, Cuba deployed more than 65,000 troops and 400 Soviet-made tanks in Angola in one of the fastest military mobilizations in history.[138]South Africa developed nuclear weapons due to the threat to its security posed by the presence of large numbers ofCuban troops in Angola.[139]In 1976 and again in 1988 at theBattle of Cuito Cuanavale,the Cubans alongside their MPLA allies defeatedUNITArebels andapartheidSouth African forces.[140][q]In December 1977, Cuba sent its combat troops from Angola, the People's Republic of the Congo, and the Caribbean to Ethiopia,[136]assisted by mechanized Soviet battalions, to help defeat a Somali invasion. On 24 January 1978, Ethiopian and Cuban troops counterattacked, inflicting 3,000 casualties on the Somali forces.[136]In February, Cuban troops launched a major offensive and forced the Somali army back into its own territory.[136][142]Cuban forces remained in Ethiopia until 9 September 1989.[136]
Despite Cuba's small size and the long distance separating it from the Middle East, Castro's Cuba played an active role in the region during the Cold War. In 1972, a major Cuban military mission consisting of tank, air, and artillery specialists was dispatched toSouth Yemen.Cuban military advisors were sent toIraqin the mid-1970s but their mission was canceled after Iraq invaded Iran in 1980.[136]The Cubans were also involved in the Syrian-IsraeliWar of Attrition(November 1973–May 1974) that followed theYom Kippur War(October 1973).[143]Israeli sources reported the presence of a Cuban tank brigade in theGolan Heights,which was supported by two brigades.[144]The Israelis and the Cuban-Syrian tank forces engaged in battle on the Golan front.[145]: 37–38
The standard of living in the 1970s was "extremely spartan" and discontent was rife.[146]Fidel Castro admitted the failures of economic policies in a 1970 speech.[146]In 1975, the OAS lifted its sanctions against Cuba, with the approval of 16 member states, including the United States. The U.S., however, maintained its own sanctions.[129]In 1979, the U.S. objected to the presence ofSoviet combat troopson the island.[54]Following the 1983 coup that resulted in the execution of Grenadian Prime MinisterMaurice Bishopand establishment of the military government led byHudson Austin,U.S. forces invadedGrenada in 1983, overthrowing the Government. Most resistance came from Cuban construction workers, while the Grenadan People's Revolutionary Army and militia surrendered without putting up much of a fight. 24 Cubans were killed, with only 2 of them being professional soldiers, and the remainder were expelled from the island. U.S. casualties amounted to 19 killed, 116 wounded, and 9 helicopters destroyed. During the 1970s and 1980s, Castro supported Marxist insurgencies inGuatemala,El Salvador,andNicaragua.Cuba gradually withdrew its troops from Angola in 1989–91.[136]An important psychological and political aspect of the Cuban military involvement in Africa was the significant presence of black or mixed-race soldiers among the Cuban forces.[136][r]According to one source, more than 300,000 Cuban military personnel and civilian experts were deployed in Africa. The source also states that out of the 50,000 Cubans sent to Angola, half contracted AIDS and that 10,000 Cubans died as a consequence of their military actions in Africa.[136]
Soviet troops began to withdraw from Cuba in September 1991,[54]and Castro's rule was severely tested in the aftermath of theSoviet collapse in December 1991(known in Cuba as theSpecial Period). The country faced a severe economic downturn following the withdrawal of Soviet subsidies worth$4 billionto$6 billionannually, resulting in effects such as food and fuel shortages.[148][149]The government did not accept American donations of food, medicines and cash until 1993.[148]On 5 August 1994, state security dispersed protesters in aspontaneous protestin Havana. From the start of the crisis until 1995, Cuba saw its gross domestic product (GDP) shrink by 35%. It took another five years for its GDP to reach pre-crisis levels.[150]
Cuba has since found a new source of aid and support in the People's Republic of China. In addition,Hugo Chávez,thenpresident of Venezuela,andEvo Morales,formerpresident of Bolivia,became allies and both countries are major oil and gas exporters. In 2003, the government arrested and imprisoned a large number of civil activists, a period known as the"Black Spring".[151][152]
In February 2008, Fidel Castro resigned as President of the State Council due to the serious gastrointestinal illness which he had suffered since July 2006.[153]On 24 February, theNational Assemblyelected his brotherRaúl Castrothe new president.[154]In his inauguration speech, Raúl promised that some of the restrictions on freedom in Cuba would be removed.[155]In March 2009, Raúl Castroremoved some of his brother's appointees.[156]
On 3 June 2009, theOrganization of American Statesadopted a resolution to end the 47-year ban on Cuban membership of the group.[157]The resolution stated, however, that full membership would be delayed until Cuba was "in conformity with the practices, purposes, and principles of the OAS".[129]Fidel Castro wrote that Cuba would not rejoin the OAS, which, he said, was a "U.S. Trojan horse" and "complicit" in actions taken by the U.S. against Cuba and other Latin American nations.[158]
Effective 14 January 2013, Cuba ended the requirement established in 1961, that any citizens who wish to travel abroad were required to obtain an expensive government permit and a letter of invitation.[159][160][161]In 1961 the Cuban government had imposed broad restrictions on travel to prevent the mass emigration of people after the 1959 revolution;[162]it approved exit visas only on rare occasions.[163]Requirements were simplified: Cubans need only a passport and a national ID card to leave; and they are allowed to take their young children with them for the first time.[164]However, a passport costs on average five months' salary. Observers expect that Cubans with paying relatives abroad are most likely to be able to take advantage of the new policy.[165]In the first year of the program, over 180,000 left Cuba and returned. As of December 2014[update],talks with Cuban officials and American officials, including PresidentBarack Obama,resulted in the release ofAlan Gross,fifty-two political prisoners, and an unnamed non-citizen agent of the United States in return for the release of three Cuban agents currently imprisoned in the United States. Additionally, while the embargo between the United States and Cuba was not immediately lifted, it was relaxed to allow import, export, and certain limited commerce.[166]
Raúl Castro stepped down from the presidency on 19 April 2018 andMiguel Díaz-Canelwas elected president by the National Assembly followingparliamentary elections.Raúl Castro remained theFirst Secretary of the Communist Partyand retained broad authority, including oversight over the president.[167]
Cuba approved a new constitution in 2019. The optional vote attracted 84.4% of eligible voters. 90% of those who voted approved of the new constitution and 9% opposed it. The new constitution states that the Communist Party is the only legitimate political party, describes access to health and education as fundamental rights, imposes presidential term limits, enshrines the right to legal representation upon arrest, recognizes private property, and strengthens the rights of multinationals investing with the state.[168]Any form of discrimination harmful to human dignity is banned under the new constitution.[169]
Raúl Castro announced at the EighthCongress of the Communist Party of Cuba,which began on 16 April 2021, that he was retiring as secretary of the Communist Party.[170]His successor, Miguel Díaz-Canel, was voted in on 19 April.[171]
In July 2021, there wereseveral large protests against the governmentunder the banner ofPatria y Vida.Cuban exilesalso conducted protests overseas.[172][173][174]The song associated with the movement received international acclaim including aLatin Grammy Award.[175]
On 25 September 2022, Cuba approved areferendumwhich amended the Family Code to legalisesame-sex marriageand allowsurrogate pregnancyandsame-sex adoption.Gender reassignment surgeryandtransgender hormone therapyare provided free of charge under Cuba's national healthcare system. The proposed changes were supported by the government and opposed by conservatives and parts of the opposition.Official policiesof the Cuban government from 1959 until the 1990s were hostile towards homosexuality, with theLGBT communitymarginalized on the basis ofheteronormativity,traditionalgender roles,and strict criteria formoralism.[169][176]
Geography
Cuba is anarchipelagoof 4,195 islands, cays and islets located in the northernCaribbean Seaat the confluence with theGulf of Mexicoand the Atlantic Ocean. It lies between latitudes19°and24°N,and longitudes74°and85°W.Florida (Key West, Florida) is about 150 km (93 miles) across theStraits of Floridato the north and northwest, andThe Bahamas(Cay Lobos) 22.5 km (14 mi) to the north. Mexico lies 210 km (130.5 mi) west across theYucatán Channel(to the closest tip ofCabo Catochein the State ofQuintana Roo).
Haitiis 77 km (47.8 mi) east andJamaica140 km (87 mi) south. Cuba is the principal island, surrounded by four smaller groups of islands: theColorados Archipelagoon the northwestern coast, theSabana-Camagüey Archipelagoon the north-central Atlantic coast, theJardines de la Reinaon the south-central coast and theCanarreos Archipelagoon the southwestern coast.
The main island, named Cuba, is 1,250 km (780 mi) long, constituting most of the nation's land area (104,338 km2or 40,285 sq mi) and is the largest island in theCaribbeanand17th-largest islandin the world by land area. The main island consists mostly of flat to rolling plains apart from theSierra Maestramountains in the southeast, whose highest point isPico Turquino(1,974 m or 6,476 ft).
The second-largest island isIsla de la Juventud(Isle of Youth) in the Canarreos archipelago, with an area of 2,204 km2(851 sq mi). Cuba has an official area (land area) of 109,884 km2(42,426 sq mi). Its area is 110,860 km2(42,803 sq mi) including coastal and territorial waters.
Climate
With the entire island south of theTropic of Cancer,the local climate is tropical, moderated by northeasterly trade winds that blow year-round. The temperature is also shaped by the Caribbean current, which brings in warm water from the equator. This makes the climate of Cuba warmer than that of Hong Kong, which is at around the same latitude as Cuba but has a subtropical rather than a tropical climate. In general (with local variations), there is a drier season from November to April, and a rainier season from May to October. The average temperature is 21 °C (70 °F) in January and 27 °C (81 °F) in July. The warm temperatures of the Caribbean Sea and the fact that Cuba sits across the entrance to theGulf of Mexicocombine to make the country prone to frequenthurricanes.These are most common in September and October.
Hurricane Irmahit the island on 8 September 2017, with winds of 260 km/h (72 m/s),[177]at the Camagüey Archipelago; the storm reached Ciego de Avila province around midnight and continued to pound Cuba the next day.[178]The worst damage was in the keys north of the main island. Hospitals, warehouses and factories were damaged; much of the north coast was without electricity. By that time, nearly a million people, including tourists, had been evacuated.[179]TheVaraderoresort area also reported widespread damage; the government believed that repairs could be completed before the start of the main tourist season.[180]Subsequent reports indicated that ten people had been killed during the storm, including seven in Havana, most during building collapses. Sections of the capital had been flooded.[180]
Biodiversity
Cuba signed the RioConvention on Biological Diversityon 12 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 8 March 1994.[181]It has subsequently produced aNational Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan,with one revision, that the convention received on 24 January 2008.[182]
The country's fourth national report to theCBDcontains a detailed breakdown of the numbers of species of each kingdom of life recorded from Cuba, the main groups being: animals (17,801 species), bacteria (270),chromista(707), fungi, includinglichen-forming species (5844), plants (9107) andprotozoa(1440).[183]The nativebee hummingbirdorzunzuncitois the world's smallest known bird, with a length of55 mm (2+1⁄8in). TheCuban trogonortocororois thenational birdof Cuba and anendemicspecies.Hedychium coronarium,namedmariposain Cuba, is thenational flower.[184]
Cuba is home to six terrestrial ecoregions:Cuban moist forests,Cuban dry forests,Cuban pine forests,Cuban wetlands,Cuban cactus scrub,andGreater Antilles mangroves.[185]It had a 2019Forest Landscape Integrity Indexmean score of 5.4/10, ranking it 102nd globally out of 172 countries.[186]
According to a 2012 study, Cuba is the only country in the world to meet the conditions of sustainable development put forth by theWWF.[187]
Government and politics
The Republic of Cuba is one of the fewsocialistcountries following theMarxist–Leninistideology. The Constitution of 1976, which defined Cuba as asocialist republic,was replaced by the Constitution of 1992, which is "guided by the ideas ofJosé Martíand the political and social ideas ofMarx,EngelsandLenin."[188]The constitution describes theCommunist Party of Cubaas the "leading force of society and of the state".[188]The political system in Cuba reflects the Marxist–Leninist concept ofdemocratic centralism.[189]: 38
TheFirst Secretary of the Communist Party of Cubais the most senior position in theone-party state.[190]The First Secretary leads thePolitburoand theSecretariat,making the office holder the most powerful person inCuban government.[191]Members of both councils are elected by theNational Assembly of People's Power.[188]The President of Cuba, who is also elected by the Assembly, serves for five years and since the ratification of the 2019 Constitution, there is a limit of two consecutive five-year terms.[188]
ThePeople's Supreme Courtserves as Cuba's highest judicial branch of government. It is also the court of last resort for all appeals against the decisions of provincial courts.
Cuba's national legislature, the National Assembly of People's Power (Asamblea Nacional de Poder Popular), is the supreme organ of power; 474 members serve five-year terms.[188]The assembly meets twice a year; between sessions legislative power is held by the 31 member Council of Ministers. Candidates for the Assembly are approved by public referendum. All Cuban citizens over 16 who have not been convicted of a criminal offense can vote.[192]Article 131 of the Constitution states that voting shall be "through free, equal and secret vote".[188]Article 136 states: "In order for deputies or delegates to be considered elected they must get more than half the number of valid votes cast in the electoral districts".[188]
There areelections in Cuba,but they are not considered democratic.[193][194]In elections for the National Assembly of People's Power there is only one candidate for each seat, and candidates are nominated by committees that are firmly controlled by the Communist Party.[195][196]Most legislative districts elect multiple representatives to the Assembly. Voters can select individual candidates on theirballot,select every candidate, or leave every question blank, with no option to vote against candidates.[197][198]
Nopolitical partyis permitted to nominate candidates or campaign on the island, including the Communist Party.[199]The Communist Party of Cuba has held six party congress meetings since 1975. In 2011, the party stated that there were 800,000 members, and representatives generally constitute at least half of the Councils of state and the National Assembly. The remaining positions are filled by candidates nominally without party affiliation. Other political parties campaign and raise finances internationally, while activity within Cuba byopposition groupsis minimal.
Cuba is considered an authoritarian regime according toThe Economist'sDemocracy Index[200]andFreedom in the Worldreports.[201]More specifically, Cuba is considered amilitary dictatorshipin theDemocracy-Dictatorship Index,and has been described as "a militarized society"[202]with the armed forces having long been the most powerful institution in the country.[203]
In February 2013, President of the State CouncilRaúl Castroannounced he would resign in 2018, ending his five-year term, and that he hopes to implement permanent term limits for future Cuban presidents, including age limits.[204]
After Fidel Castro died on 25 November 2016, the Cuban government declared a nine-day mourning period. During the mourning period, Cuban citizens were prohibited from playing loud music, partying, and drinking alcohol.[205]
Miguel Díaz-Canelwas elected president on 18 April 2018 after the resignation of Raúl Castro. On 19 April 2021, Díaz-Canel became First Secretary of the Communist Party. He is the first non-Castro to be in such top position since theCuban revolutionof 1959.[206]
Administrative divisions
The country is subdivided into 15 provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). These were formerly part of six larger historical provinces: Pinar del Río, Habana, Matanzas, Las Villas, Camagüey and Oriente. The present subdivisions closely resemble those of the Spanish military provinces during the Cuban Wars of Independence, when the most troublesome areas were subdivided. The provinces are divided into municipalities.
Foreign relations
Cuba has conducted a foreign policy that is uncharacteristic of such a minor, developing country.[207][208]Under Castro, Cuba was heavily involved in wars in Africa, Central America and Asia. Cuba supportedAlgeriain 1961–1965[209]and sent tens of thousands of troops toAngoladuring theAngolan Civil War.[210]Other countries that featured Cuban involvement includeEthiopia,[211][212]Guinea,[213]Guinea-Bissau,[214]Mozambique,[215]andYemen.[216]Lesser known actions include the 1959 missions to theDominican Republic.[217]The expedition failed, but a prominent monument to its members was erected in their memory inSanto Domingoby the Dominican government, and they feature prominently at the country's Memorial Museum of the Resistance.[218]
In 2008, the European Union (EU) and Cuba agreed to resume full relations and cooperation activities.[219]Cuba is a founding member of theBolivarian Alliance for the Americas.[220]At the end of 2012, tens of thousands of Cuban medical personnel worked abroad,[221]with as many as 30,000 doctors in Venezuela alone via the two countries' oil-for-doctors programme.[222]
In 1996, the United States, then under PresidentBill Clinton,brought in theCuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act,better known as theHelms–Burton Act.[223][s]In 2009, United States PresidentBarack Obamastated on 17 April, inTrinidad and Tobagothat "the United States seeks a new beginning with Cuba",[225]and reversed theBush Administration's prohibition on travel and remittances by Cuban-Americans from the United States to Cuba.[226]Five years later, an agreement between the United States and Cuba, popularly called the "Cuban thaw",brokered in part by Canada andPope Francis,began the process of restoring international relations between the two countries. They agreed to release political prisoners and the United States began the process of creating an embassy in Havana.[227][228][229][230][231]This was realized on 30 June 2015, when Cuba and the U.S. reached a deal to reopen embassies in their respective capitals on 20 July 2015[232]and reestablish diplomatic relations.[233]Earlier in the same year, theWhite Houseannounced that President Obama would remove Cuba from the American government's list of nations that sponsor terrorism,[234][235]which Cuba reportedly welcomed as "fair".[236]On 17 September 2017, the United States considered closing its Cuban embassy following mysteriousmedical symptomsexperienced by its staff.[237]In the wake of theRussian invasion of Ukraineand the ongoing international isolation of Russia, Cuba emerged as one of the few countries that maintained friendly relations with the Russian Federation.[238][239]Cuban presidentMiguel Diaz-CanelvisitedVladimir Putinin Moscow in November 2022, where the two leaders opened a monument of Fidel Castro, as well as speaking out against U.S. sanctions against Russia and Cuba.[240]
Embargo by the United States (1960–present)
Since 1960, the U.S. embargo on Cuba stands as one of the longest-running trade and economic measures in bilateral relations history, having endured for almost six decades. This action was initiated in response to a wave of nationalizations that impacted American properties valued at over US$1 billion, the then U.S.[241]President,Dwight Eisenhower,instated an embargo that prohibited all exports to Cuba, with the exception of medicines and certain foods.[241]This measure was intensified in 1962 under the administration ofJohn F. Kennedy,extending the restrictions to Cuban imports, based on the Foreign Assistance Act approved by Congress in 1961.[241]During theMissile Crisisin 1962, the United States even imposed a naval blockade on Cuba, but this was lifted following the resolution of the crisis. The embargo, however, remained in place and has been modified on several occasions over the years.[241]
TheCuban Democracy Actof 1992 states that sanctions will continue "so long as it continues to refuse to move toward democratization and greater respect for human rights".[242][non-primary source needed]American diplomatLester D. Mallorywrote an internal memo on April 6, 1960, arguing in favor of an embargo: "The only foreseeable means of alienating internal support is through disenchantment and disaffection based on economic dissatisfaction and hardship. [...] to decrease monetary and real wages, to bring about hunger, desperation and overthrow of government."[243][244]TheUN General Assemblyhas passed a resolution every year since 1992 condemning the embargo and stating that it violates theCharter of the United Nationsand international law.[245]Cuba considers the embargo a human rights violation.[246]
The impact and effectiveness of the embargo have been subjects of intense debate. While some argue it has been "extraordinarily porous" and isn't the primary cause of Cuba's economic hardships, others see it as a pressure mechanism aimed at driving change in the Cuban government.[241]According to Arturo Lopez Levy, a professor of international relations, it would be more appropriate to refer to the measure as a "blockade"or"siege",as it goes beyond mere trade restrictions.[241]Other critics of the Cuban government argue that the embargo has been used by the government as an excuse to justify its own economic and political shortcomings.[241]
On 17 December 2014, United States PresidentBarack Obamaannounced there-establishmentof diplomatic relations with Cuba, pushing for Congress to put an end to the embargo,[247]as well as the United States-runGuantanamo Bay detention camp.These diplomatic improvements were later reversed by theTrumpAdministration, which enacted new rules and re-enforced the business and travel restrictions which were loosened by the Obama Administration.[248]These sanctions were inherited and strengthened by theBidenAdministration.[249]
Despite the embargo, Cuba has maintained trade relations with other countries.[241]According to 2019 data, China stands as Cuba's main trading partner, followed by countries such as Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, and Cyprus. Cuba's main exports include tobacco, sugar, and alcoholic beverages, while it primarily imports chicken meat, wheat, corn, and condensed milk.[241]
Military
As of 2018[update],Cuba spent aboutUS$91.8 millionon its armed forces or 2.9% of its GDP.[250]In 1985, Cuba devoted more than 10% of its GDP to military expenditures.[141]During theCold War,Cuba built up one of the largest armed forces in Latin America, second only to that ofBrazil.[251]
From 1975 until the late 1980s,Soviet militaryassistance enabled Cuba to upgrade its military capabilities. After the loss of Soviet subsidies, Cuba scaled down the numbers of military personnel, from 235,000 in 1994 to about 49,000 in 2021.[252][253]
In 2017, Cuba signed the UN treaty on theProhibition of Nuclear Weapons.[254]
Cuba is the 98th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024Global Peace Index.[255]
Law enforcement
All law enforcement agencies are maintained under Cuba's Ministry of the Interior, which is supervised by theRevolutionary Armed Forces.In Cuba, citizens can receive police assistance by dialing "106" on their telephones.[256]The police force, which is referred to as "Policía Nacional Revolucionaria" or PNR is then expected to provide help. The Cuban government also has an agency called theIntelligence Directoratethat conducts intelligence operations and maintains close ties with theRussian Federal Security Service.[257]The US Justice Department considers Cuba a significant counterintelligence threat.[258]
Civilians are also involved in law enforcement, in a limited capacity. TheCommittees for the Defense of the Revolutionare an officialneighborhood watchorganization, made up of dedicated citizens who monitor their neighbors.[259]Membership is not selective, but leading members are approved by theCuban Communist Party.[260]
Human rights
In 2003, theEuropean Union(EU) accused the Cuban government of "continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms".[261]As of 2009,[update]it has continued to call regularly for social and economic reform in Cuba, along with the unconditional release of allpolitical prisoners.[262]
Cuba was ranked 19th by the number of imprisoned journalists of any nation in 2021[update]according to various sources, including theCommittee to Protect Journalistsand Human Rights Watch.[263][264]Cuba ranks 171st out of 180 on the 2020[update]World Press Freedom Index.[265]
In July 2010, the unofficial Cuban Human Rights Commission said there were 167 political prisoners in Cuba, a fall from 201 at the start of the year. The head of the commission stated that long prison sentences were being replaced by harassment and intimidation.[266]
Economy
The Cuban state asserts its adherence tosocialistprinciples in organizing its largely state-controlledplanned economy.Most of the means of production are owned and run by the government and most of the labor force is employed by the state. Recent years have seen a trend toward more private sector employment. By 2006, public sector employment was 78% and private sector 22%, compared to 91.8% to 8.2% in 1981.[267]Government spending is 78.1% of GDP.[268]Since the early 2010s, following the initial market reforms, it has become popular to describe the economy as being, or moving toward,market socialism.[269][270][271]Any firm that hires a Cuban must pay the Cuban government, which in turn pays the employee in Cuban pesos.[272]The average monthly wage as of July 2013[update]was 466Cuban pesos—about US$19.[273]However, after a reform in January 2021, the minimum wage is about 2100 CUP (US$18) and the median wage is about 4000 CUP (US$33).[citation needed]
Cuba had Cuban pesos (CUP) set at par with the US dollar before 1959.[273]Every Cuban household has a ration book (known aslibreta) entitling it to a monthly supply of food and other staples, which are provided at nominal cost.[274]
According to the Havana Consulting Group, in 2014, remittances to Cuba amounted to US$3,129 million, the seventh highest in Latin America.[275]In 2019, remittances had grown to US$6,616 million, but dropped down to US$1,967 million in 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[276]The pandemic has also devastated Cuba's tourist industry, which along with a tightening of U.S. sanctions, has led to large increase in emigration among younger working-age Cubans. It has been described as a crisis that is "threatening the stability" of Cuba, which "already has one of the hemisphere’s oldest populations".[277]According to a controversial 2023 report by theCuban Observatory of Human Rights(OCDH), 88% of Cuban citizens live in extreme poverty. The report stated that Cubans were concerned about food security and the difficulty in acquiring basic goods.[278]
According to theWorld Bank,Cuba'sGDP per capitawas $9,500 as of 2020.[279]But according to theCIA World Factbook,it was $12,300 as of 2016.[280]TheUnited Nations Development Programmegave Cuba aHuman Development Index(HDI) of 0.764 in 2021.[281]The same United Nations agency estimated the country'sMultidimensional Poverty Indexof 0.003 in 2023.[282]
In 2005, Cuba had exports ofUS$2.4 billion,ranking 114 of 226 world countries, and imports ofUS$6.9 billion,ranking 87 of 226 countries.[283]Its major export partners are Canada 17.7%, China 16.9%, Venezuela 12.5%, Netherlands 9%, and Spain 5.9% (2012).[284]Cuba's major exports are sugar, nickel, tobacco, fish, medical products, citrus fruits, and coffee;[284]imports include food, fuel, clothing, and machinery. Cuba presently holds debt in an amount estimated at$13 billion,[285]approximately 38% of GDP.[286]
According toThe Heritage Foundation,Cuba is dependent on credit accounts that rotate from country to country.[287]Cuba's prior 35% supply of the world's export market for sugar has declined to 10% due to a variety of factors, including a global sugar commodity price drop that made Cuba less competitive on world markets.[288]It was announced in 2008 that wage caps would be abandoned to improve the nation's productivity.[289]
Cuba's leadership has called for reforms in the country'sagricultural system.In 2008, Raúl Castro began enacting agrarian reforms to boost food production, as at that time 80% of food was imported. The reforms aim to expand land use and increase efficiency.[290]Venezuela supplies Cuba with an estimated 110,000 barrels (17,000 m3) of oil per day in exchange for money and the services of some 44,000 Cubans, most of them medical personnel, in Venezuela.[291][292]
In 2010[update],Cubans were allowed to build their own houses. According to Raúl Castro, they could now improve their houses, but the government would not endorse these new houses or improvements.[293]There is virtually no homelessness in Cuba,[294][295]and 85% of Cubans own their homes[296]and pay no property taxes or mortgage interest. Mortgage payments may not exceed 10% of a household's combined income.[citation needed].
On 2 August 2011,The New York Timesreported that Cuba reaffirmed its intent to legalize "buying and selling" of private property before the year's end. According to experts, the private sale of property could "transform Cuba more than any of the economic reforms announced by President Raúl Castro's government".[297]It would cut more than one million state jobs, including party bureaucrats who resist the changes.[298]The reforms created what some call "New Cuban Economy".[299][300]In October 2013, Raúl said he intended to merge the two currencies, but as of August 2016[update],the dual currency system remains in force.
In 2016, theMiami Heraldwrote, "... about 27 percent of Cubans earn under $50 per month; 34 percent earn the equivalent of $50 to $100 per month; and 20 percent earn $101 to $200. Twelve percent reported earning $201 to $500 a month; and almost 4 percent said their monthly earnings topped $500, including 1.5 percent who said they earned more than $1,000."[301]
In May 2019, Cuba imposed rationing of staples such as chicken, eggs, rice, beans, soap and other basic goods. (Some two-thirds of food in the country is imported.) A spokesperson blamed the increased U.S. trade embargo although economists believe that an equally important problem is the massive decline of aid from Venezuela and the failure of Cuba's state-run oil company which had subsidized fuel costs.[302]
In June 2019, the government announced an increase in public sector wages of about 300%, specifically for teachers and health personnel.[303]In October, the government allowed stores to purchase house equipment and similar items, using international currency, and send it to Cuba by emigration. The leaders of the government recognized that the new measures were unpopular but necessary to contain the capital flight to other countries as Panamá where Cuban citizens traveled and imported items to resell on the island. Other measures included allowing private companies to export and import, through state companies, resources to produce products and services in Cuba.
On January 1, 2021, Cuba's dual currency system was formally ended, and theconvertible Cuban peso(CUC) was phased out, leaving theCuban peso(CUP) as the country's sole currency unit. Cuban citizens had until June 2021 to exchange their CUCs. However, this devalued the Cuban peso and caused economic problems for people who had been previously paid in CUCs, particularly workers in the tourism industry.[304][305][306]Also, in February, the government dictated new measures to the private sector, with prohibitions for only 124 activities,[307]in areas like national security, health and educational services.[308]The wages were increased again, between 4 and 9 times, for all the sectors. Also, new facilities were allowed to the state companies, with much more autonomy.[305]
The first problem with the new reform, in terms of public opinion, were electricity prices, but that was amended quickly. Other measures corrected were in the prices for private farmers.[citation needed]In July 2020, Cuba opened new stores accepting only foreign currency while simultaneously eliminating a special tax on the U.S. dollar[309]to combat an economic crisis arising initially due to economic sanctions imposed by the Trump administration,[310]then later worsened by a lack of tourism during thecoronavirus pandemic.These economic sanctions have since been sustained by the Biden administration.[311]
Resources
Cuba's natural resources include sugar, tobacco, fish, citrus fruits,coffee,beans, rice, potatoes, and livestock. Cuba's most important mineral resource is nickel, with 21% of total exports in 2011.[312]The output of Cuba's nickel mines that year was 71,000 tons, approaching 4% of world production.[313]As of 2013[update]its reserves were estimated at 5.5 million tons, over 7% of the world total.[313]Sherritt Internationalof Canada operates a large nickel mining facility inMoa.Cuba is also a major producer of refinedcobalt,a by-product of nickel mining.[314]
Oil exploration in 2005 by theUS Geological Surveyrevealed that the North Cuba Basin could produce about 4.6 billion barrels (730,000,000 m3) to 9.3 billion barrels (1.48×109m3) of oil. In 2006, Cuba started to test-drill these locations for possible exploitation.[315]
Tourism
Tourism was initially restricted to enclave resorts where tourists would be segregated from Cuban society, referred to as "enclave tourism" and "tourism apartheid".[316]Contact between foreign visitors and ordinary Cubans werede factoillegal between 1992 and 1997.[317]The rapid growth of tourism during the Special Period had widespread social and economic repercussions in Cuba, and led to speculation about the emergence of a two-tier economy.[318]
1.9 milliontourists visited Cuba in 2003, predominantly from Canada and the European Union, generating revenue ofUS$2.1 billion.[319]Cuba recorded 2,688,000 international tourists in 2011, the third-highest figure in the Caribbean (behind the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico).[320]
Themedical tourismsector caters to thousands of European, Latin American, Canadian, and American consumers every year.[citation needed]
A study in 2018 indicated that Cuba has a potential formountaineeringactivity, and that mountaineering could be a key contributor to tourism, along with other activities, e.g. biking, diving, caving. Promoting these resources could contribute to regional development, prosperity, and well-being.[321]
The Cuban Justice minister downplays allegations of widespreadsex tourism.[322]According to a Government of Canada travel advice website, "Cuba is actively working to prevent child sex tourism, and a number of tourists, including Canadians, have been convicted of offenses related to the corruption of minors aged 16 and under. Prison sentences range from 7 to 25 years."[323]
Some tourist facilities were extensively damaged on 8 September 2017 whenHurricane Irmahit the island. The storm made landfall in the Camagüey Archipelago; the worst damage was in the keys north of the main island, however, and not in the most significant tourist areas.[179]
Transport
Demographics
According to the official census of 2010, Cuba's population was 11,241,161, comprising 5,628,996 men and 5,612,165 women.[324]Itsbirth rate(9.88 births per thousand population in 2006)[325]is one of the lowest in theWestern Hemisphere.Although the country's population has grown by about four million people since 1961, the rate of growth slowed during that period, and the population began to decline in 2006, due to the country's lowfertility rate(1.43 children per woman) coupled with emigration.[326]
Largest cities
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Havana  Santiago de Cuba |
1 | Havana | Havana | 2,131,480 |  Camagüey  Holguín | ||||
| 2 | Santiago de Cuba | Santiago de Cuba | 433,581 | ||||||
| 3 | Camagüey | Camagüey | 308,902 | ||||||
| 4 | Holguín | Holguín | 297,433 | ||||||
| 5 | Santa Clara | Villa Clara | 216,854 | ||||||
| 6 | Guantánamo | Guantánamo | 216,003 | ||||||
| 7 | Victoria de Las Tunas | Las Tunas | 173,552 | ||||||
| 8 | Bayamo | Granma | 159,966 | ||||||
| 9 | Cienfuegos | Cienfuegos | 151,838 | ||||||
| 10 | Pinar del Río | Pinar del Río | 145,193 | ||||||
Ethnoracial groups
Cuba's population is multiethnic, reflecting its complex colonial origins. Intermarriage between diverse groups is widespread, and consequently there is some discrepancy in reports of the country's racial composition: whereas the Institute for Cuban and Cuban-American Studies at theUniversity of Miamidetermined that 62% of Cubans are black using theone drop rule,[329]the 2002 Cuban census found that a similar proportion of the population, 65.05%, was white.
In fact, theMinority Rights Group Internationaldetermined that "An objective assessment of the situation ofAfro-Cubansremains problematic due to scant records and a paucity of systematic studies both pre- and post-revolution. Estimates of the percentage of people of African descent in the Cuban population vary enormously, ranging from 34% to 62% ".[330]
A 2014 study found that, based onancestry informative markers(AIM),autosomalgenetic ancestry in Cuba is 72% European, 20% African, and 8% Indigenous.[331]
Asiansmake up about 1% of the population, and are largely ofChinese ancestry,followed byJapaneseandFilipino.[332][333]Many are descendants of farm laborers brought to the island by Spanish and American contractors during the 19th and early 20th century.[334]The current recorded number of Cubans with Chinese ancestry is 114,240.[335]
Afro-Cubansare descended primarily from theYoruba people,Bantu people from theCongo basin,Kalabari tribeand Arará from theDahomey,as well as several thousand North African refugees, most notably theSahrawi ArabsofWestern Sahara.[336]
Migration
Immigration
Immigration and emigration have played a prominent part in Cuba's demographic profile. Between the 18th and early 20th century, large waves ofCanarian,Catalan,Andalusian,Galician,and other Spanish people immigrated to Cuba. Between 1899 and 1930 alone, close to a million Spaniards entered the country, though many would eventually return to Spain.[337]Other prominent immigrant groups included French,[338]Portuguese,Italian, Russian,Dutch,Greek,British, and Irish, as well as small number of descendants of U.S. citizens who arrived in Cuba in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As of 2015, the foreign-born population in Cuba was 13,336 inhabitants per theWorld Bankdata.[339]
Emigration
Post-revolution Cuba has been characterized by significant levels of emigration, which has led to alarge and influential diaspora community.During the three decades after January 1959, more than one million Cubans of all social classes—constituting 10% of the total population—emigrated to the United States,a proportion that matches the extent of emigration to the U.S. from the Caribbean as a whole during that period.[340][341][342][343][344]Prior to 13 January 2013, Cuban citizens could not travel abroad, leave or return to Cuba without first obtaining official permission along with applying for a government-issued passport and travel visa, which was often denied.[345]Those who left the country typically did so by sea, in small boats and fragile rafts.
On 9 September 1994, the U.S. and Cuban governments agreed that the U.S. would grant at least 20,000 visas annually in exchange for Cuba's pledge to prevent further unlawful departures on boats.[346]
In 2023, Cuba is undergoing its most severe socioeconomic crisis since thefall of the Soviet Union,leading to a record number of Cubans fleeing the island.[347]In 2022 alone, the number of Cubans trying to enter the United States, primarily through theMexican border,surged from 39,000 in 2021 to over 224,000. Many have resorted to selling their homes at very low prices to afford one-way flights toNicaragua,hoping to travel through Mexico to reach the U.S.[347]For those remaining among the island's 11 million inhabitants, life grows increasingly desperate. Internal migration has led to overpopulation in the capital, Havana, resulting in people living in makeshift shelters or overcrowded buildings, some of which are on the brink of collapse. The island's persistent shortages of food and medicine can be attributed to the U.S. trade embargo in place since 1962 and stringent government control over the economy since 1959. Regular power outages harken back to the early 1990s, a time when Soviet subsidies ended, plunging the island into economic hardship.[347]
Cuba's "Special Period"saw the country relying heavily on foreign tourism and the earnings of nationals working abroad. The pandemic, however, severely affected this revenue stream, decreasing the number of tourists by 75% in 2020. Monetary reforms in 2021 introduced shocks of inflation, further exacerbating the country's food scarcity and boosting the black market's prominence.[347]Despite the increasing hardships, the Cuban spirit remains resilient. Access to the internet since 2018 and widespread use of social media have fueled calls for political and economic liberalization. The power of the internet was evident during the Cuban protests of 2021, which were promptly suppressed by the police, with many prominent artists and bloggers detained.[347]
As of 2013 the top emigration destinations were the United States, Spain, Italy, Puerto Rico, and Mexico.[348]Following a tightening of U.S. sanctions and damage to the tourist industry by the COVID-19 pandemic, emigration has accelerated. In 2022, more than 2% of the population (almost 250,000 Cubans out of 11 million) migrated to the United States, and thousands more went to other countries, a number "larger than the 1980Mariel boatliftand the1994 Cuban rafter crisiscombined ", which were Cuba's previous largest migration events.[277]
Languages
The official language of Cuba is Spanish and the vast majority of Cubans speak it. Spanish as spoken in Cuba is known asCuban Spanishand is a form ofCaribbean Spanish.Lucumí,a dialect of the West African languageYoruba,is also used as aliturgical languageby practitioners ofSantería,[349]and so only as a second language.[350]Haitian Creoleis the second-most spoken language in Cuba, and is spoken byHaitianimmigrants and their descendants.[351]Other languages spoken by immigrants includeGalicianandCorsican.[352]
Religion
In 2010, thePew Forumestimated that religious affiliation in Cuba is 59.2% Christian, 23% unaffiliated, 17.4%folk religion(such assantería), and the remaining 0.4% consisting of other religions.[353]In a 2015 survey sponsored by Univision, 44% of Cubans said they were not religious and 9% did not give an answer while only 34% said they were Christian.[354]
Cuba is officially a secular state. Religious freedom increased through the 1980s,[355]with the government amending the constitution in 1992 to drop the state's characterization as atheistic.[356]
Roman Catholicismis the largest religion, with its origins in Spanish colonization. Despite less than half of the population identifying as Catholics in 2006, it nonetheless remains the dominant faith.[287]Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI visited Cuba in 1998 and 2011, respectively, and Pope Francis visited Cuba in September 2015.[357][358]Prior to each papal visit, the Cuban government pardoned prisoners as a humanitarian gesture.[359][360]
The government's relaxation of restrictions onhouse churchesin the 1990s led to an explosion ofPentecostalism,with some groups claiming as many as 100,000 members. However,Evangelical Protestantdenominations, organized into the umbrella Cuban Council of Churches, remain much more vibrant and powerful.[361]
The religious landscape of Cuba is also strongly defined bysyncretismsof various kinds. Christianity is often practiced in tandem withSantería,a mixture of Catholicism and mostly African faiths, which include a number of cults. La Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre (the Virgin ofCobre) is the Catholic patroness of Cuba, and a symbol of Cuban culture. In Santería, she has been syncretized with the goddessOshun.A breakdown of the followers of Afro-Cuban religions showed that most practitioners ofPalo Mayombewere black and dark brown-skinned, most practitioners ofVodúwere medium brown and light brown-skinned, and most practitioners of Santeria were light brown and white-skinned.[362]
Cuba also hosts small communities of Jews (500 in 2012),Muslims,and members of theBaháʼí Faith.[363]
Several well-known Cuban religious figures have operated outside the island, including the humanitarian and authorJorge Armando Pérez.
Education
TheUniversity of Havanawas founded in 1728 and there are a number of other well-establishedcolleges and universities.In 1957, just before Castro came to power, the literacy rate was as low as fourth in the region at almost 80% according to the United Nations, yet higher than in Spain.[111]Castro created an entirely state-operated system and banned private institutions. School attendance is compulsory from ages six to the end of basic secondary education (normally at age 15), and all students, regardless of age or gender, wear school uniforms with the color denoting grade level. Primary education lasts for six years, secondary education is divided into basic and pre-university education.[364]Cuba'sliteracy rateof 99.8 percent[284][365]is thetenth-highest globally,largely due to the provision of free education at every level.[366]Cuba's high school graduation rate is 94 percent.[367]
Higher education is provided by universities, higher institutes, higherpedagogicalinstitutes, and higherpolytechnicinstitutes. The Cuban Ministry of Higher Education operates a distance education program that provides regular afternoon and evening courses in rural areas for agricultural workers. Education has a strong political and ideological emphasis, and students progressing to higher education are expected to have a commitment to the goals of Cuba.[364]Cuba has provided free education to foreign nationals from disadvantaged backgrounds at theLatin American School of Medicine.[368][369]
According to theWebometrics Ranking of World Universities,the top-ranking universities in the country areUniversidad de la Habana(1680th worldwide),Instituto Superior Politécnico José Antonio Echeverría(2893rd) and theUniversity of Santiago de Cuba(3831st).[370]
Health
After the revolution, Cuba established a free public health system.[30]
Cuba'slife expectancyat birth is 79.87 years (77.53 for males and 82.35 for females). This ranks Cuba 59th in the world and 4th in the Americas, behind Canada, Chile and the United States.[371]Infant mortality declined from 32 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 1957, to 10 in 1990–95,[372]6.1 in 2000–2005 and 5.13 in 2009.[365][284]Historically, Cuba has ranked high in numbers of medical personnel and has made significant contributions to world health since the 19th century.[111]Today, Cuba hasuniversal health careand despite persistent shortages of medical supplies, there is no shortage of medical personnel.[373]Primary care is available throughout the island and infant and maternal mortality rates compare favorably with those in developed nations.[373]That an impoverished nation like Cuba has health outcomes rivaling the developed world is referred to by researchers as the Cuban Health Paradox.[374]Cuba ranks 30th on the 2019 Bloomberg Healthiest Country Index, the highest ranking of a developing country.[375]The Cuban healthcare system, renowned for its medical services, has emphasized the export of health professionals through international missions, aiding global health efforts.[376]However, while these missions generate significant revenue and serve as a tool for political influence, domestically, Cuba faces challenges including medication shortages and disparities between medical services for locals and foreigners.[376]Despite the income from these missions, only a small fraction of the national budget has been allocated to public health, underscoring contrasting priorities within the nation's healthcare strategy.[376]
Disease and infant mortality increased in the 1960s immediately after the revolution, when half of Cuba's 6,000 doctors left the country.[377]Recovery occurred by the 1980s,[98]and the country's health care has been widely praised.[378]The Communist government stated that universal health care was a priority of state planning and progress was made in rural areas.[379]After the revolution, the government increased rural hospitals from one to 62.[30]Like the rest of theCuban economy,medical care suffered from severe material shortages following the end of Soviet subsidies in 1991, and a tightening of the U.S. embargo in 1992.[380]
Challenges include low salaries for doctors,[31]poor facilities, poor provision of equipment, and the frequent absence of essential drugs.[32]
Cuba has the highest doctor-to-population ratio in the world and has sent thousands of doctors to more than 40 countries around the world.[381]According to theWorld Health Organization,Cuba is "known the world over for its ability to train excellent doctors and nurses who can then go out to help other countries in need".[382]As of September 2014[update],there are around 50,000 Cuban-trained health care workers aiding 66 nations.[383]Cuban physicians have played a leading role in combating theEbola virus epidemic in West Africa.[384]Preventative medicineis very important within the Cuban medical system, which provides citizens with easy to obtain regular health checks.[30]
Import and export ofpharmaceutical drugsis done by the Quimefa Pharmaceutical Business Group (FARMACUBA) under the Ministry of Basic Industry (MINBAS). This group also provides technical information for the production of these drugs.[385]Isolated from the West by the US embargo, Cuba developed the successful lung cancer vaccine,Cimavax,which is now available to US researchers for the first time, along with other novel Cuban cancer treatments. The vaccine has been available for free to the Cuban population since 2011.[386]According toRoswell Park Comprehensive Cancer CenterCEO Candace Johnson: "They've had to do more with less, so they've had to be even more innovative with how they approach things. For over 40 years, they have had a preeminent immunology community."[387]During thethaw in Cuba–U.S. relationsstarting in December 2014 under the Obama administration, a growing number of U.S. lung cancer patients traveled to Cuba to receive vaccine treatment. The end of the thaw under the Trump Administration has resulted in a tightening of travel restrictions, making it harder for U.S. citizens to travel to Cuba for treatment.[388]
In 2015, Cuba became the first country to eradicatemother-to-child transmissionof HIV and syphilis,[389]a milestone hailed by theWorld Health Organizationas "one of the greatest public health achievements possible".[390]
Diet and Nutrition in the Cuban Household
The traditional diet in Cuban households has raised international concerns due to its lack of micronutrients and diversity. According to theWorld Food Programme(WFP), an entity of the United Nations, the average diet in Cuba lacks adequate nutritional quality. This is attributed to various factors, including limited availability of nutrient-rich foods,socioeconomicissues, and poor dietary habits.[34]The WFP's annual report on Cuba supports previous testimonies and evidence, pointing to a concerning situation. Even though the country has rolled out food subsidy programs, many backed by the WFP, the populace's diet remains nutritionally insufficient. Specifically, rationed food covers only a small percentage of the daily energy, protein, and fat requirements for the population aged 14 to 60.[34]
Such deficiencies have led to health issues like overweight and obesity, largely due to a diet high in sugars and salts. Additionally, there is a significant disparity in accessing proper nutrition. Individuals without access to foreign currencies and remittances are the most affected. The inadequacy of the minimum wage to meet recommended nutritional requirements is another concern highlighted in the report.[34]The political and socioeconomic landscape has influenced this scenario. The implementation of the "Tarea Ordenamiento,"an economic reform that removed many food subsidies, has spurred alarming inflation, intensifying the shortage of basic foods like cereals, vegetables, dairy, and meat. As a result, Cuban households spend between 55% and 65% of their income on food, a proportion deemed disproportionate compared to international standards.[34]
Nevertheless, the report acknowledges the Cuban government's efforts in areas like social protection and universal access to basic services. It highlights Cuba's position in the Human Development Report 2021-2022 and the extensive COVID-19 vaccination coverage.[34]To address food security challenges, the WFP has enhanced its collaboration with Cuban authorities. In 2022, the organization procured essential foods and macronutrients worth $10.7 million in response to alarming figures about anemia prevalence in infants.[34]
Amid this nutritional crisis, international interventions and collaborations are anticipated to alleviate the food and nutrition issues plaguing the Cuban populace.[34]
Culture
Cuban culture is influenced by its melting pot of cultures, primarily those ofSpain,West Africa and the Indigenous Guanahatabey and Taínos of Cuba. After the 1959 revolution, the government started a national literacy campaign, offered free education to all and established rigorous sports, ballet, and music programs.[391]
Architecture
Architecture in Cuba was mainly manifested during the colonial period. It brought the culture of Spain with its Baroque influence. The first villas (settlements) were constituted by a church surrounded by several houses. These houses had an interior or central courtyard and were covered with grilles. There are magnificent religious buildings such as theBasílica de San Franciscoof Havana. In addition, large forts were built for defense, preventing the attack of pirates and buccaneers. There are several old historic centers in Cuba that were built during the Spanish colonial period, the most remarkable are the four cities inscribed as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO,Havana,Camagüey,CienfuegosandTrinidad,which has great architectural bastions of all currents and trends fromBaroque,Neoclassicaltoeclecticart, and other preserved colonial towns such asSantiago de Cuba,MatanzasorRemedios.
During the Republican period, large buildings were built, such asthe Capitol,modeled after the one inWashington,and other large buildings such as theFocsaand the Habana Hilton, later theHabana Libre.One of the most outstanding Cuban architects of the second half of the 20th century wasAntonio Quintana Simonetti.
After the triumph of the Revolution, architecture received a strong Soviet influence with its desire for symmetry and space saving, and entire new neighborhoods were built in the style of the working-class quarters of Moscow orMinsk.When theBerlin Wallfell, architecture received more diverse currents and there was a boom in 5 star hotels with impressive glass and steel facades in the style of modernskyscrapersin Manhattan or other Latin American metropolises such asMexico CityorCaracas.
Literature
Cuban literature began to find its voice in the early 19th century. Dominant themes of independence and freedom were exemplified by José Martí, who led the Modernist movement in Cuban literature. Writers such asNicolás Guillénand José Z. Tallet focused on literature as social protest. The poetry and novels ofDulce María LoynazandJosé Lezama Limahave been influential. RomanticistMiguel Barnet,who wroteEveryone Dreamed of Cuba,reflects a more melancholy Cuba.[392]
Alejo Carpentierwas important in themagic realismmovement. Writers such asReinaldo Arenas,Guillermo Cabrera Infante,andDaína Chaviano,Pedro Juan Gutiérrez,Zoé Valdés,Guillermo RosalesandLeonardo Padurahave earned international recognition in the post-revolutionary era, though many of these have felt compelled to continue their work in exile due to ideological control of media by the Cuban authorities. However, some Cuban writers continue living and writing in Cuba, including Nancy Morejón.[393]
Music
Cuban music is very rich and is the most commonly known expression of Cuban culture. The central form of this music isson,which has been the basis of many other musical styles like "Danzónde nuevo ritmo ",mambo,cha-cha-cháandsalsa music.Rumba ( "de cajón o de solar" ) music originated in the early Afro-Cuban culture, mixed with Spanish elements of style.[394]TheTreswas invented in Cuba from Spanish cordophone instruments models (the instrument is actually a fusion of elements from the Spanish guitar and lute). Other traditional Cuban instruments are of African origin,Taínoorigin, or both, such as themaracas,güiro,marímbulaand various wooden drums including themayohuacán.
Popular Cuban music of all styles has been enjoyed and praised widely across the world. Cuban classical music, which includes music with strong African and European influences, and features symphonic works as well as music for soloists, has received international acclaim thanks to composers likeErnesto Lecuona.Havana was the heart of therapscene in Cuba when it began in the 1990s. In December 2012, the director of the Cuban Music Institute, Orlando Vistel, threatened to bar sexually explicit songs and music videos from public radio and television.[395]
Dance
Cuban culture encompasses a wide range of dance forms.[396]Danzónwas the official musical genre and dance of Cuba.[397]Mambomusic and dance developed originally in Cuba, with further significant developments by Cuban musicians in Mexico and the US. Thecha-cha-chais another dance of Cuban origin,[398]while the Cubanbolerooriginated inSantiago de Cubain the last quarter of the 19th century.[399]Concert danceis supported by the government and includes internationally renowned companies such as theBallet Nacional de Cuba.[400]
Salsa dancingoriginated in Cuba andCuban salsais danced around the world.
Media
ETECSAopened 118 cybercafes across the country in 2013.[401]The government of Cuba provides an online encyclopedia website calledEcuRedthat operates in a "wiki"format.[402]Internet access is controlled, and e-mail is closely monitored.[403]
Since 2018, access to Internet by mobile data is available. In 2019, 7.1 million Cubans could access the Internet.[404]The prices of connections, since[clarification needed]WiFi zones, or mobile data, or from houses through "Nauta Hogar" service have been decreasing, especially since the economic reform of January 2021, when all the salaries increased by at least 5 times, and the prices of Internet remain in the same point.[405][406]In 2021, it was reported that 7.7 million Cuban people have Internet access.[407]There were 6.14 million mobile connections in Cuba in January 2021.[407]
Cuisine
Cuban cuisine is a fusion ofSpanishandCaribbean cuisines.Cuban recipes share spices and techniques with Spanish cooking, with some Caribbean influence in spice and flavor. Food rationing, which has been the norm in Cuba for the last four decades, restricts the common availability of these dishes.[408]The traditional Cuban meal is not served in courses; all food items are served at the same time.
The typical meal could consist of plantains, black beans and rice,ropa vieja(shredded beef),Cuban bread,pork with onions, and tropical fruits. Black beans and rice, referred to asmoros y cristianos(ormorosfor short), and plantains are staples of the Cuban diet. Many of the meat dishes are cooked slowly with light sauces. Garlic, cumin, oregano, and bay leaves are the dominant spices.[citation needed]
Sports
Due to historical associations with the United States, many Cubans participate in sports that are popular in North America, rather than sports traditionally played in other Latin American nations.Baseballis the most popular. Other popular sports include volleyball,boxing,athletics,wrestling,basketball andwater sports.[409]Cuba is a dominant force inamateur boxing,consistently achieving high medal tallies in major international competitions. BoxersRances BarthelemyandErislandy Laradefected to the U.S. and Mexico respectively.[410][411]Cuba also provides anational teamthat competes in theOlympic Games.[412]Jose R. Capablancawas a Cuban world chess champion from 1921 to 1927.
See also
Notes
- ^Data represents racial self-identification from Cuba's 2012 national census
- ^The most powerful political position isFirst Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba,notPresident.The first secretary controls thePolitburoand theSecretariat,Cuba's top decision-making bodies, making the officeholderde factoleader of Cuba.
- ^/ˈkjuːbə/KEW-bə,Spanish:[ˈkuβa]
- ^Spanish:República de Cuba[reˈpuβlikaðeˈkuβa]
- ^After the French captured Havana in 1555, the governor's son, Francisco de Angulo, went to theViceroyalty of New Spain.[53]
- ^The French had recommended this to Spain, advising that declining to give upFloridacould result in Spain losingNew Spainand much of their territories on South American mainland in the future.[56]Many in Britain were disappointed, believing that Florida was a poor return for Cuba and Britain's other gains in the war.[56]
- ^This was a much higher proportion of free blacks to slaves than inVirginia,for instance, or the other Caribbean islands. Historians such as Magnus Mõrner, who have studiedslavery in Latin America,found thatmanumissionsincreased when slave economies were in decline, as in 18th-century Cuba and early 19th-centuryMarylandin the United States.[55][62]
- ^By contrast, Virginia, with about the same number of blacks, had only 58,042 or 11% who were free; the rest were enslaved.[55]
- ^While Céspedes retained civilian leadership, the military aspects of theTen Years' Warwere under the leadership of the DominicanMáximo Gómez.[citation needed]
- ^A group of Dominican exiles, led byMáximo Gómez,Luis Marcano,andModesto Díaz,utilizing the experience they had gained in theDominican Restoration War(1863–65), became instructors of military strategy and tactics. With reinforcements and guidance from the Dominicans, the Cubans defeated Spanish detachments, cut railway lines, and gained dominance over vast sections of the eastern portion of the island.[65]On 19 February 1874, Gómez and 700 other rebels marched westward from their eastern base and defeated 2,000 Spanish troops at El Naranjo. The Spaniards lost 100 killed and 200 wounded and the rebels a total of 150 killed and wounded.[66]The most significant rebel victory came at the Battle of Las Guasimas, 16–20 March 1874, when 2,050 rebels, led byAntonio Maceoand Gómez, defeated 5,000 Spanish troops with 6 cannons. The five-day battle cost the Spanish 1,037 casualties and the rebels 174 casualties.[66]
- ^A battalion of 500 Chinese fought under the command of GeneralMáximo Gómezin the 1874 Battle of Las Guasimas.[67]
- ^A monument in Havana honors the Cuban Chinese who fell in the war.[68]
- ^Spain sustained 200,000 casualties, mostly from disease; the rebels sustained 100,000–150,000 dead.[70]
- ^Over the previous decades, five U.S. presidents—Polk,Pierce,Buchanan,Grant,andMcKinley—had tried to buy the island of Cuba from Spain.[80][81]
- ^TheBattle of Santiago de Cuba,on 3 July 1898, was the largest naval engagement during theSpanish–American War,and resulted in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron. Resistance in Santiago consolidated around Fort Canosa, while major battles between Spaniards and Americans took place atLas Guasimason 24 June, and atEl CaneyandSan Juan Hillon 1 July, after which the American advance ground to a halt. The Americans lost 81 killed and 360 wounded in taking El Caney, where the Spanish defenders lost 38 killed, 138 wounded and 160 captured. At San Juan, the Americans lost 216 killed and 1,024 wounded; Spanish losses were 58 killed, 170 wounded and 39 captured.[82]Spanish troops successfully defended Fort Canosa, allowing them to stabilize their line and bar the entry to Santiago. The Americans and Cubans began a brutal siege of the city, which surrendered on 16 July after the defeat of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron. Spain had sacrificed more of its sons to hold on to Cuba than she had in attempting to cling on toMexico and South America,[83]and suffered over 62,000 dead in theCuban War of Independence(1895–98).
- ^Dominican RepublicstrongmanRafael Trujilloand Castro both supported attempts to overthrow each other. On 14 June 1959, a Cuban-supported invasion force[117]landed from an airplane at Constanza, Dominican Republic, only to be immediately massacred.[118]A week later, two yachts offloaded 186 invaders onto Chris-Craft launches for a landing on the North coast. Dominican Air Force pilots fired rockets from theirVampire Jetsinto the approaching launches, killing all but 30 men, who managed to make it to the beaches at Maimon and Estero Hondo. Trujillo ordered his son,Ramfis,to lead the hunt for the survivors, and soon they were captured. The leaders of the invasion were taken aboard a Dominican Air Force plane and then pushed out in mid-air, falling to their deaths.[119]Militant anti-Castro groups, funded by exiles, by theCentral Intelligence Agency(CIA) and by Trujillo's Dominican government, carried out armed attacks and set up guerrilla bases in Cuba's mountainous regions. This led to the six-yearEscambray rebellion(1959–65), which lasted longer and involved more soldiers than the Cuban Revolution.[120][121]
- ^An estimated 5,000 Cubans were killed in action during theAngolan Civil War.[141]
- ^The presence of a substantial number of blacks and mulattoes in the Cuban forces (40–50 percent in Angola) helped give teeth to Castro's campaign against racism and related prejudice likexenophobia.[147]
- ^Roy's study was described as "systematic and fair" byJorge Domínguez.[224]
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