Wikipedia

Mosquito

(Redirected fromCulicidae)

This article is about the insect. For other uses, seeMosquito (disambiguation).

Mosquitoes,theCulicidae,are afamilyof smallfliesconsisting of 3,600species.The wordmosquito(formed bymoscaanddiminutive-ito)[2]is Spanish and Portuguese forlittle fly.[3]Mosquitoes have a slendersegmented body,one pair of wings, three pairs of long hair-like legs, and specialized, highly elongated,piercing-sucking mouthparts.All mosquitoes drinknectarfromflowers;females of some species have in addition adapted to drink blood. The group diversified during theCretaceousperiod.Evolutionary biologistsview mosquitoes asmicropredators,small animals thatparasitiselarger ones by drinking their blood without immediately killing them.Medical parasitologistsview mosquitoes instead asvectors of disease,carryingprotozoanparasites orbacterialorviralpathogensfrom onehostto another.

Mosquito
Temporal range:99–0MaLate Cretaceous(Cenomanian) – Recent
Aedes aegypti,vectorofyellow fever
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Superfamily: Culicoidea
Family: Culicidae
Meigen,1818[1]
Subfamilies
Diversity
112 genera

The mosquito life cycle consists of four stages:egg,larva,pupa,andadult.Eggs are laid on the water surface; they hatch intomotilelarvae that feed on aquaticalgaeandorganic material.These larvae are important food sources for many freshwater animals, such asdragonfly nymphs,many fish, and some birds. Adult females of many species have mouthparts adapted to pierce the skin of ahostandfeed on bloodof a wide range ofvertebratehosts, and someinvertebrates,primarily otherarthropods.Some species only produce eggs after a blood meal.

The mosquito'ssalivais transferred to the host during the bite, and can cause an itchyrash.In addition, blood-feeding species can ingest pathogens while biting, and transmit them to other hosts. Those species include vectors ofparasitic diseasessuch asmalariaandfilariasis,andarboviraldiseases such asyellow feveranddengue fever.By transmitting diseases, mosquitoes cause the deaths of over 725,000 people each year.

Description and life cycle

Like all flies, mosquitoes go through four stages in their life cycles:egg,larva,pupa,andadult.The first three stages—egg, larva, and pupa—are largely aquatic,[4]the eggs usually being laid in stagnant water.[5]They hatch to becomelarvae,which feed, grow, and molt until they change intopupae.The adult mosquito emerges from the mature pupa as it floats at the water surface. Mosquitoes have adult lifespans ranging from as short as a week to around a month. Some species overwinter as adults indiapause.[6]

Adult

Mosquitoes have one pair of wings, with distinct scales on the surface. Their wings are long and narrow, while the legs are long and thin. The body, usually grey or black, is slender, and typically 3–6 mm long. When at rest, mosquitoes hold their first pair of legs outwards, whereas the somewhat similarChironomidmidges hold these legs forwards.[7]Anophelesmosquitoes can fly for up to four hours continuously at 1 to 2 km/h (0.62 to 1.24 mph),[8]traveling up to 12 km (7.5 mi) in a night. Males beat their wings between 450 and 600 times per second,driven indirectlyby muscles which vibrate the thorax.[9][10]Mosquitoes are mainly small flies; the largest are in the genusToxorhynchites,at up to 18 mm (0.71 in) in length and 24 mm (0.94 in) in wingspan.[11]Those in the genusAedesare much smaller, with a wingspan of 2.8 to 4.4 mm (0.11 to 0.17 in).[12]

Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in hot weather in as few as five days, but it may take up to a month.[13]At dawn or dusk, within days of pupating, males assemble inswarms,mating when females fly in.[14]The female mates only once in her lifetime, attracted by the pheromones emitted by the male.[15][16]As a species that need blood for the eggs to develop, the female finds a host and drinks a full meal of blood. She then rests for two or three days to digest the meal and allow her eggs to develop. She is then ready to lay the eggs and repeat the cycle of feeding and laying.[14]Females can live for up to three weeks in the wild, depending on temperature, humidity, their ability to obtain a blood meal, and avoiding being killed by their vertebrate hosts.[14][17]

  • Anatomy of an adult female mosquito
  • Adult yellow fever mosquitoAedes aegypti,typical of subfamilyCulicinae.Male (left) has bushy antennae and longerpalpsthan female (right)

Eggs

The eggs of most mosquitoes are laid in stagnant water, which may be a pond, a marsh, a temporary puddle, a water-filled hole in a tree, or the water-trapping leaf axils of abromeliad.Some lay near the water's edge while others attach their eggs to aquatic plants. A few, likeOpifex fuscus,can breed in salt-marshes.[5]Wyeomyia smithiibreeds in the pitchers ofpitcher plants,its larvae feeding on decaying insects that have drowned there.[18]

Oviposition,egg-laying, varies between species.Anophelesfemales fly over the water, touching down ordappingto place eggs on the surface one at a time; their eggs are roughly cigar-shaped and have floats down their sides. A female can lay 100–200 eggs in her lifetime.[14]Aedesfemales drop their eggs singly, on damp mud or other surfaces near water; their eggs hatch only when they are flooded.[19]Females in genera such asCulex,Culiseta,andUranotaenialay their eggs in floating rafts.[20][21]Mansoniafemales in contrast lay their eggs in arrays, attached usually to the under-surfaces of waterlily pads.[22]

Clutches of eggs of most mosquito species hatch simultaneously, butAedeseggs in diapause hatch irregularly over an extended period.[19]

Larva

The mosquito larva's head has prominent mouth brushes used for feeding, a largethoraxwith no legs, and a segmentedabdomen.It breathes air through a siphon on its abdomen, so must come to the surface frequently. It spends most of its time feeding onalgae,bacteria, and other microbes in the water's surface layer. It dives below the surface when disturbed. It swims either by propelling itself with its mouth brushes, or by jerkily wriggling its body. It develops through several stages, orinstars,molting each time, after which itmetamorphosesinto apupa.[13]Aedeslarvae, except when very young, can withstand drying; they go intodiapausefor several months if their pond dries out.[19]

Pupa

The head and thorax of thepupaare merged into acephalothorax,with the abdomen curving around beneath it. The pupa or "tumbler" can swim actively by flipping its abdomen. Like the larva, the pupa of most species must come to the surface frequently to breathe, which they do through a pair of respiratory trumpets on their cephalothoraxes. They do not feed; they pass much of their time hanging from the surface of the water by their respiratory trumpets. If alarmed, they swim downwards by flipping their abdomens in much the same way as the larvae. If undisturbed, they soon float up again. The adult emerges from the pupa at the surface of the water and flies off.[13]

  • Mosquito pupae, shortly before the adults emerged. The head and thorax are fused into the cephalothorax.

Feeding by adults

Diet

Further information:Anautogeny
FemaleOchlerotatus notoscriptusfeeding on blood from a human arm.

Both male and female mosquitoes feed onnectar,aphid honeydew, and plant juices,[17]but in many species the females are alsoblood-suckingectoparasites.In some of those species, a blood meal is essential for egg production; in others, it just enables the female to lay more eggs.[23]Both plant materials and blood are useful sources of energy in the form of sugars. Blood supplies more concentrated nutrients, such aslipids,but the main function of blood meals is to obtain proteins for egg production.[24][25]Mosquitoes likeToxorhynchitesreproduce autogenously, not needing blood meals. Disease vector mosquitoes likeAnophelesandAedesareanautogenous,requiring blood to lay eggs. ManyCulexspecies are partially anautogenous, needing blood only for their second and subsequent clutches of eggs.[26]

Host animals

Blood-sucking mosquitoes favour particular host species, though they are less selective when food is short. Different mosquito species favoramphibians,reptilesincludingsnakes,birds,andmammals.For example,Culiseta melanurasucks the blood ofpasserinebirds, but as mosquito numbers rise they attack mammals including horses and humans, causing epidemics ofEastern equine encephalitis virusin North America.[27]Loss of blood from many bites can add up to a large volume, occasionally causing the death oflivestockas large ascattleandhorses.[28]Malaria-transmitting mosquitoes seek outcaterpillarsand feed on their haemolymph,[29]impeding their development.[30]

  • Feeding on a snake
  • Feeding on a frog
  • Feeding on a bird

Finding hosts

Blood-feeding female mosquitoes find their hosts using multiple cues, including exhaledcarbon dioxide,heat, and many differentodorants.

Most mosquito species arecrepuscular,feeding at dawn or dusk, and resting in a cool place through the heat of the day.[31]Some species, such as theAsian tiger mosquito,are known to fly and feed during daytime.[32]Female mosquitoes hunt for hosts by smelling substances such ascarbon dioxide(CO2) and1-octen-3-ol(mushroom alcohol, found in exhaled breath) produced from the host, and through visual recognition.[33]Thesemiochemicalthat most strongly attractsCulexquinquefasciatusisnonanal.[34]Another attractant issulcatone.[35]A large part of the mosquito's sense of smell, or olfactory system, is devoted to sniffing out blood sources. Of 72 types of odor receptors on its antennae, at least 27 are tuned to detect chemicals found in perspiration.[36]InAedes,the search for a host takes place in two phases. First, the mosquito flies about until it detects a host's odorants; then it flies towards them, using the concentration of odorants as its guide.[37]Mosquitoes prefer to feed on people withtype O blood,an abundance of skin bacteria, high body heat, and pregnant women.[38][39]Individuals' attractiveness to mosquitoes has aheritable,genetically controlled component.[40]

The multitude of characteristics in a host observed by the mosquito allows it to select a host to feed on. This occurs when a mosquito notes the presence of CO2,as it then activates odour and visual search behaviours that it otherwise would not use. In terms of a mosquito’s olfactory system, chemical analysis has revealed that people who are highly attractive to mosquitoes produce significantly morecarboxylic acids.[41]A human's unique body odour indicates that the target is actually a human host rather than some other living warm-blooded animal (as the presence of CO2shows). Body odour, composed ofvolatile organic compoundsemitted from the skin of humans, is the most important cue used by mosquitoes.[42]Variation in skin odour is caused by body weight, hormones, genetic factors, and metabolic or genetic disorders. Infections such as malaria can influence an individual’s body odour. People infected by malaria produce relatively large amounts ofPlasmodium-induced aldehydes in the skin, creating large cues for mosquitoes as it increases the attractiveness of an odour blend, imitating a "healthy" human odour. Infected individuals produce larger amounts of aldehydesheptanal,octanal,andnonanal.These compounds are detected by mosquito antennae. Thus, people infected with malaria are more prone to mosquito biting.[43]

Contributing to a mosquito's ability to activate search behaviours, a mosquito's visual search system includes sensitivity to wavelengths from different colours. Mosquitoes are attracted to longer wavelengths, correlated to the colours of red and orange as seen by humans, and range through the spectrum of human skin tones. In addition, they have a strong attraction to dark, high-contrast objects, because of how longer wavelengths are perceived against a lighter-coloured background.[44]

Scanning electron microscope image of the Labium tip of Culex mosquito

Different species of mosquitoes have evolved different methods of identifying target hosts. Study of a domestic form and an animal-biting form of the mosquitoAedes aegyptishowed that the evolution of preference for human odour is linked to increases in the expression of theolfactory receptorAaegOr4. This recognises a compound present at high levels in human odour calledsulcatone.However, the malaria mosquitoAnopheles gambiaealso has OR4 genes strongly activated by sulcatone, yet none of them are closely related to AaegOr4, suggesting that the two species have evolved to specialise in biting humans independently.[45]

Mouthparts

Further information:Insect mouthparts

Female mosquito mouthparts are highly adapted to piercing skin and sucking blood. Males only drink sugary fluids, and have less specialized mouthparts.[46]

Externally, the most obvious feeding structure of the mosquito is the proboscis, composed of thelabium,U-shaped in section like arain gutter,which sheaths a bundle (fascicle) of six piercing mouthparts or stylets. These are twomandibles,twomaxillae,thehypopharynx,and thelabrum.The labium bends back into a bow when the mosquito begins to bite, staying in contact with the skin and guiding the stylets downwards. The extremely sharp tips of the labrum and maxillae are moved backwards and forwards to saw their way into the skin, with just one thousandth of the force that would be needed to penetrate the skin with a needle, resulting in a painless insertion.[47][48][49]

  • Evolution of mosquito mouthparts, withgrasshoppermouthparts (shown bothin situand separately) representing a more primitive condition. All the mouthparts except the labium are stylets, formed into a fascicle or bundle.
  • Mouthparts of a female mosquito while feeding on blood, showing the flexiblelabiumsheath supporting the piercing and sucking tube which penetrates the host's skin

Saliva

Mosquito saliva containsenzymesthat aid in sugar feeding,[50]andantimicrobial agentsthat control bacterial growth in the sugar meal.[51]

For a mosquito to obtain a blood meal, it must circumvent itsvertebratehost's physiological responses. Mosquito saliva blocks the host'shemostasissystem, with proteins that reducevascular constriction,blood clotting,andplateletaggregation, to ensure the blood keeps flowing.[52]It modulates the host'simmune responsevia a mixture of proteins which lowerangiogenesisandimmunity;createinflammation;[52][53]suppresstumor necrosis factorrelease from activatedmast cells;[54]suppressinterleukin(IL)-2 andIFN-γproduction;[55][56]suppressT cellpopulations;[57][58][59]decrease expression ofinterferon−α/β, making virus infections more severe;[60][61]increasenatural killer T cellsin the blood; and decrease cytokine production.[62]

Egg development and blood digestion

AnAnopheles stephensifemale is engorged with blood and beginning to pass unwanted liquid fractions to make room in its gut for more of the solid nutrients.

Females of many blood-feeding species need a blood meal to begin the process of egg development. A sufficiently large blood meal triggers a hormonal cascade that leads to egg development.[63]Upon completion of feeding, the mosquito withdraws herproboscis,and as the gut fills up, the stomach lining secretes aperitrophic membranethat surrounds the blood. This keeps the blood separate from anything else in the stomach. Like manyHemipterathat survive on dilute liquid diets, many adult mosquitoes excrete surplus liquid even when feeding. This permits females to accumulate a full meal of nutrient solids. The blood meal is digested over a period of several days.[64]Once blood is in the stomach, the midgut synthesizesproteaseenzymes, primarilytrypsinassisted byaminopeptidase,that hydrolyze the bloodproteinsinto freeamino acids.These are used in the synthesis ofvitellogenin,which in turn is made into egg yolk protein.[65]

Distribution

Cosmopolitan

Mosquitoes have acosmopolitan distribution,occurring in every land region except Antarctica and a few islands with polar orsubpolar climates,such asIceland,which is essentially free of mosquitoes.[66]This absence is probably caused by Iceland's climate. Its weather is unpredictable, freezing but often warming suddenly in mid-winter, making mosquitoes emerge from pupae in diapause, and then freezing again before they can complete their life cycle.[67][68]

Eggs oftemperate zonemosquitoes are more tolerant of cold than the eggs of species indigenous to warmer regions.[69][70]Many can tolerate subzero temperatures, while adults of some species can survive winter by sheltering in microhabitats such as buildings or hollow trees.[71]In warm and humid tropical regions, some mosquito species are active for the entire year, but in temperate and cold regions they hibernate or enterdiapause.Arcticor subarctic mosquitoes, like some other arctic midges in families such asSimuliidaeandCeratopogonidaemay be active for only a few weeks annually as melt-water pools form on the permafrost. During that time, though, they emerge in huge numbers in some regions; a swarm may take up to 300 ml of blood per day from each animal in acaribouherd.[72]

Effect of climate change

For a mosquito to transmit disease, there must be favorable seasonal conditions,[73]primarily humidity, temperature, and precipitation.[74]El Niñoaffects the location and number of outbreaks in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia andIndia.Climate changeimpacts the seasonal factors and in turn the dispersal of mosquitoes.[75]Climate models can use historic data to recreate past outbreaks and to predict the risk of vector-borne disease, based on an area's forecasted climate.[76] Mosquito-borne diseases have long been most prevalent in East Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia, andIndia.An emergence in Europe was observed early in the 21st century. It is predicted that by 2030, the climate of southern Great Britain will be suitable for transmission ofPlasmodium vivaxmalaria byAnophelesmosquitoes for two months of the year, and that by 2080, the same will be true for southern Scotland.[77][78] Dengue fever,too, is spreading northwards with climate change. The vector, the Asian tiger mosquitoAedes albopictus,has by 2023 established across southern Europe and as far north as much of northern France, Belgium, Holland, and bothKentand West London in England.[79]

Ecology

Predators and parasites

Mosquito larvae are among the commonest animals in ponds, and they form an important food source for freshwaterpredators.Among the many aquatic insects that catch mosquito larvae aredragonflyanddamselflynymphs,whirligig beetles,andwater striders.Vertebrate predators include fish such as catfish and themosquitofish,amphibians including thespadefoot toadand thegiant tree frog,freshwater turtles such as thered-eared slider,and birds such as ducks.[80]

Emerging adults are consumed at the pond surface by predatory flies includingEmpididaeandDolichopodidae,and byspiders.Flying adults are captured by dragonflies and damselflies, by birds such asswiftsandswallows,and by vertebrates includingbats.[81]

Mosquitoes are parasitised byhydrachnidmites,ciliatessuch asGlaucoma,microsporidianssuch asThelania,and fungi including species ofSaprolegniaceaeandEntomophthoraceae.[81]

Pollination

A mosquito visiting amarigoldflower fornectar

Several flowers including members of theAsteraceae,RosaceaeandOrchidaceaearepollinatedby mosquitoes, which visit to obtain sugar-richnectar.They are attracted to flowers by a range of semiochemicals such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and terpenes. Mosquitoes have visited and pollinated flowers since theCretaceousperiod. It is possible that plant-suckingexaptedmosquitoes to blood-sucking.[17]

Parasitism

Further information:Parasitism

Ecologically, blood-feeding mosquitoes aremicropredators,small animals that feed on larger animals without immediately killing them. Evolutionary biologists see this as a form ofparasitism;inEdward O. Wilson's phrase "Parasites... are predators that eat prey in units of less than one."[82]Micropredation is one of six majorevolutionarily stable strategieswithin parasitism. It is distinguished by leaving the host still able to reproduce, unlike the activity ofparasitic castratorsorparasitoids;and having multiple hosts, unlike conventional parasites.[83][84]From this perspective, mosquitoes areectoparasites,feeding on blood from the outside of their hosts, using their piercing mouthparts, rather than entering their bodies. Unlike some other ectoparasites such asfleasandlice,mosquitoes do not remain constantly on the body of the host, but visit only to feed.[84]

Evolution

Fossil record

Culex malariagermosquito infected with themalarialparasitePlasmodium dominicana,inDominicanamber ofMioceneage, 15–20 million years ago[85]

A 2023 study suggested thatLibanoculex intermediusfound inLebanese amber,dating to theBarremianage of the Early Cretaceous, around 125 million years ago was the oldest known mosquito.[86]However its identification as a mosquito is disputed, with other authors considering it to be achaoboridfly instead.[87]Three other unambiguous species ofCretaceousmosquito are known.Burmaculex antiquusandPriscoculex burmanicusare known fromBurmese amberfrom Myanmar, which dates to the earliest part of theCenomanianage of the Late Cretaceous, around 99 million years ago.[88][89]Paleoculicis minutus,is known fromCanadian amberfrom Alberta, Canada, which dates to theCampanianage of the Late Cretaceous, around 79 million years ago.[90]P. burmanicushas been assigned to theAnophelinae,indicating that the split between this subfamily and theCulicinaetook place over 99 million years ago.[89]Molecular estimates suggest that this split occurred 197.5 million years ago, during the EarlyJurassic,but that major diversification did not take place until the Cretaceous.[91]

Taxonomy

Further information:List of mosquito genera

Over 3,600 species of mosquitoes in 112generahave beendescribed.They are traditionally divided into two subfamilies, theAnophelinaeand theCulicinae,which carry different diseases. Roughly speaking, protozoal diseases like malaria are transmitted by anophelines, while viral diseases such asyellow feveranddengue feverare transmitted by culicines.[92]

The name Culicidae was introduced by the German entomologistJohann Wilhelm Meigenin his seven-volume classification published in 1818–1838.[93]Mosquito taxonomy was advanced in 1901 when the English entomologistFrederick Vincent Theobaldpublished his 5-volume monograph on the Culicidae.[94]He had been provided with mosquito specimens sent in to theBritish Museum (Natural History)from around the world, on the 1898 instruction of theSecretary of State for the Colonies,Joseph Chamberlain,who had written that "in view of the possible connection of Malaria with mosquitoes, it is desirable to obtain exact knowledge of the different species of mosquitoes and allied insects in the various tropical colonies. I will therefore ask you... to have collections made of the winged insects in the Colony which bite men or animals."[95]

Phylogeny

External

Mosquitoes are members of afamilyof thetrue flies (order Diptera):the Culicidae (from theLatinculex,genitiveculicis,meaning "midge" or "gnat" ).[96]They are members of the infraorderCulicomorphaand superfamilyCulicoidea.The phylogenetic tree is based on the FLYTREE project.[97][98]

Diptera

Ptychopteromorpha(phantom and primitive crane-flies)

Culicomorpha

Chironomidae(non-biting midges)

Simulioidea (blackflies and biting midges)

Culicoidea

Dixidae(meniscus midges)

Corethrellidae(frog-biting midges)

Chaoboridae(phantom midges)

Culicidae

other midges and gnats

all other flies, inc.Brachycera

(true flies)

Internal

The two subfamilies of mosquitoes areAnophelinae,containing three genera and approximately 430 species, andCulicinae,which contains 11 tribes, 108 genera and 3,046 species. Kyanne Reidenbach and colleagues analysed mosquitophylogeneticsin 2009, using both nuclear DNA and morphology of 26 species. They note that Anophelinae is confirmed to be rather basal, but that the deeper parts of the tree are not well resolved.[99]

Culicidae

basal spp.

Anophelinae

Culicinae

other spp.

Aedini

other spp.

Sabethini

Interactions with humans

Anopheles albimanusfeeding on a human arm. As mosquitoes are the only vectors ofmalaria,controlling them reduces its incidence.

Vectors of disease

Main article:Mosquito-borne disease

Mosquitoes arevectorsfor many disease-causingmicroorganismsincludingbacteria,viruses,andprotozoanparasites. Nearly 700 million people acquire amosquito-borne illnesseach year, resulting in over 725,000 deaths.[100]Common mosquito-borne viral diseases includeyellow fever[101]anddengue fevertransmitted mostly byAedes aegypti.[102]Parasitic diseases transmitted by mosquitoes includemalariaandlymphatic filariasis.ThePlasmodiumparasites that cause malaria are carried by femaleAnophelesmosquitoes. Lymphatic filariasis, the main cause ofelephantiasis,is spread by a wide variety of mosquitoes.[103]A bacterial disease spread byCulexandCulisetamosquitoes istularemia.[104]

Control

Main article:Mosquito control
Mosquito nets can prevent people being bitten while they sleep.

Many measures have been tried formosquito control,including the elimination of breeding places, exclusion viawindow screensandmosquito nets,biological controlwith parasites such as fungi[105][106]and nematodes,[107]or predators such as fish,[108][109][110]copepods,[111]dragonflynymphs and adults, and some species of lizard andgecko.[112]Another approach is tointroduce large numbers of sterile males.[113]Genetic modification methods including cytoplasmic incompatibility, chromosomal translocations, sex distortion and gene replacement, solutions seen as inexpensive and not subject to vector resistance, have been explored.[114]Control of disease-carrying mosquitoes usinggene driveshas been proposed.[115][116]

Repellents

Main article:Insect repellent
Mosquito repellents(including amosquito coil) in aFinnishstore

Insect repellents are applied on skin and give short-term protection against mosquito bites. The chemicalDEETrepels some mosquitoes and other insects.[117]SomeCDC-recommended repellents arepicaridin,eucalyptus oil(PMD), andethyl butylacetylaminopropionate(IR3535).[118]Pyrethrum(fromChrysanthemumspecies, particularlyC. cinerariifoliumandC. coccineum) is an effective plant-based repellent.[119]Electronic insect repellentdevices that produceultrasoundsintended to keep away insects (and mosquitoes) are marketed. NoEPAor university study has shown that these devices prevent humans from being bitten by a mosquito.[120]

Bites

Further information:Mosquito bite allergies

Mosquito bites lead to a variety of skin reactions and more seriously tomosquito bite allergies.[121]Suchhypersensitivityto mosquito bites is an excessive reaction to mosquito saliva proteins.[122]Numerous species of mosquito can trigger such reactions, includingAedes aegypti,A. vexans,A. albopictus,Anopheles sinensis,Culex pipiens,[123]Aedes communis,Anopheles stephensi,[124]C. quinquefasciatus,C. tritaeniorhynchus,[125]andOchlerotatus triseriatus.[126]Cross-reactivity between salivary proteins of different mosquitoes implies that allergic responses may be caused by virtually any mosquito species.[127]Treatment can be withanti-itchmedications, including some taken orally, such asdiphenhydramine,or applied to the skin likeantihistaminesorcorticosteroidssuch ashydrocortisone.Aqueous ammonia(3.6%) also provides relief.[128]Both topical heat[129]and cold may be useful as treatments.[130]

In human culture

Greek mythology

Arthur Rackham's illustration of thefableof "The Bull and the Mosquito",1912

Ancient Greekbeast fables including "The Elephant and the Mosquito" and "The Bull and the Mosquito",with the general moral that the large beast does not even notice the small one, derive ultimately fromMesopotamia.[131]

Origin myths

The peoples ofSiberiahaveorigin mythssurrounding the mosquito. OneOstiakmyth tells of a man-eating giant,Punegusse,who is killed by a hero but will not stay dead. The hero eventually burns the giant, but the ashes of the fire become mosquitoes that continue to plague mankind. Other myths from theYakuts,Goldes (Nanai people), andSamoyedhave the insect arising from the ashes or fragments of some giant creature or demon. Similar tales found in Native North American myth, with the mosquito arising from the ashes of a man-eater, suggest a common origin. TheTatarsof theAltaihad a variant of the same myth, involving the fragments of the dead giant,Andalma-Muus,becoming mosquitoes and other insects.[132]

Lafcadio Hearntells that in Japan, mosquitoes are seen as reincarnations of the dead, condemned by the errors of their former lives to the condition ofJiki-ketsu-gaki,or "blood-drinkingpretas".[133]

Modern era

How a Mosquito Operates(1912)

Winsor McCay's 1912 filmHow a Mosquito Operateswas one of the earliest works of animation. It has been described as far ahead of its time in technical quality.[134]It depicts a giant mosquito tormenting a sleeping man.[135]

Twelve ships of theRoyal Navyhave borne the name HMSMosquitoor the archaic form of the name, HMSMusquito.[136]

Thede Havilland Mosquitowas a high-speed aircraft manufactured between 1940 and 1950, and used in many roles.[137]

The Russian city ofBereznikiannually celebrates its mosquitoes from the 17th of July to the 20th in a "most delicious girl" competition. In the competition, the girls stand for 20 minutes in their shorts and vests, and the one who receives the most bites wins.[138]

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