Wikipedia

Damnatio memoriae

Damnatio memoriae(Classical Latin pronunciation:[damˈnaːti.oːmɛˈmɔri.ae̯]) is a modernLatinphrase meaning "condemnation of memory" or "damnation of memory", indicating that a person is to be excluded from official accounts. Depending on the extent, it can be a case ofhistorical negationism.There are and have been many routes todamnatio memoriae,including the destruction of depictions, the removal of names from inscriptions and documents, and even large-scale rewritings of history. The term can be applied to other instances of official scrubbing. The practice has been seen as early as theEgyptianNew Kingdomperiod, where the PharaohsHatshepsutandAkhenatenwere subject to it.

TheSeveran Tondo,c. 199 ADtondoof theSeveran family,with portraits ofSeptimius Severus,Julia Domna,and their sonsCaracallaandGeta.The face of one of Severus' and Julia's sons has been erased; it may be Geta's, as a result of thedamnatio memoriaeordered by his brother Caracalla after Geta's death.

AfterHerostratusset fire to theTemple of Artemis,one of theSeven Wonders of antiquity,the people ofEphesusbanned the mention of his name. His name has since become aneponymfor people who commit crimes for the purpose of gaining notoriety.

Etymology

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Although the termdamnatio memoriaeisLatin,the phrase was not used by the ancient Romans, and first appeared in athesiswritten inGermanyin 1689 by Christoph Schreiter and Johann Heinrich Gerlach.[1]The thesis was titledDissertationem juridicam de damnatione memoriae, praescitu superiorum, in florentissima Philurea.[1]

Ancient world

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Damnatio memoriaeofCommoduson an inscription in the Museum of Roman HistoryOsterburken.The abbreviation "CO" was later restored with paint.

Today's best known examples ofdamnatio memoriaefrom antiquity concern chiselling stone inscriptions or deliberately omitting certain information from them.

Ancient Mesopotamia

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According toStefan Zawadzki,the oldest known examples of such practices come from around 3000–2000 BC. He cites the example ofLagash(an ancient city-state founded by theSumeriansin southernMesopotamia), where preserved inscriptions concerning a conflict with another city-state,Umma,do not mention the ruler of Umma, but describe him as "the man of Umma", which Zawadzki sees as an example of deliberate degradation of the ruler of Umma to the role of an unworthy person whose name and position in history the rulers of Lagash did not want to record for posterity.[2]

Ancient Egypt

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Coffin believed to belong toAkhenatenfound in TombKV55.Note the typical obliteration of the face.

Egyptians also practiced this,[3]as seen in relics from pharaohAkhenaten's tomb and elsewhere. Akhenaten's sole worship of the godAten,instead of the traditionalpantheon,was considered heretical. During his reign, Akhenaten endeavoured to have all references to the godAmunchipped away and removed.[4]After his reign, temples to Aten were dismantled and the stones reused to create other temples. Images of Akhenaten had their faces chipped away, and images and references to Amun reappeared. The people blamed their misfortunes on Akhenaten's shift of worship toAtenism,away from the gods they served before him.[5]Other Egyptian victims of this practice include the pharaohs that immediately succeeded Akhenaten, includingSmenkhkare,Neferneferuaten,andAy.[3]The campaign ofdamnatio memoriaeagainst Akhenaten and his successors was initiated by Ay's successor,Horemheb,who decided to erase from history all pharaohs associated with the unpopularAmarna Period;this process was continued by Horemheb's successors.[6]Tutankhamunwas also erased from history in this way, even though he had restored Egypt to the Amun god, because he was one the kings who succeeded Akhenaten; he may also have been Akhenaten's son.

Ancient Hittites

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The erased rock relief atSirkeli Höyükthat is believed to be of Mursili III.[7]

One case ofdamnatio memoriaeis known for the ancientHittite empire.Mursili IIIwas a king of the Hittites for about seven years in 1282–1275 BC who was then overthrown by his uncleHattusili III,who assumed the throne.

There is a well known relief of Mursili's fatherMuwatalli IInear the village ofSirkeli HöyükinTurkey,as well as a second, very similar relief that is believed to be that of his son Mursili. It was largely destroyed in antiquity, most likely by his spiteful uncle. The relief of the father was left untouched.

Ancient Greece

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Part of an honorific decree forPhaedrus of Sphettus,passed in 259/8 BC. The lines mentioning Phaedrus' interactions with the Antigonids were chiselled out as part of thedamnatio memoriaeof 200 BC.

The practice was known in Ancient Greece.[8]TheAtheniansfrequently destroyed inscriptions which referred to individuals or events that they no longer wished to commemorate.[9]AfterTimotheuswas convicted of treason and removed from his post as general in 373 BC, all references to him as a general were deleted from the previous year's naval catalogue.[10]The most complete example is their systematic removal of all references to theAntigonidsfrom inscriptions in their city, in 200 BC when they were besieged by the Antigonid kingPhilip V of Macedonduring theSecond Macedonian War.[11]One decree praisingDemetrius Poliorcetes(Philip V's great-grandfather) was smashed and thrown down a well.[12]

AtDelphi,an honorific inscription erected between 337 and 327 BC forAristotleand his nephewCallisthenes,two philosophers who were closely associated with theMacedonians,were smashed and thrown in a well after the death ofAlexander of Macedonin 323 BC.[12]

Ancient Rome

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Erased mention ofGetain an inscription after hisdamnatio memoriae(Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Cagliari)
Lucius Aelius Sejanussuffereddamnatio memoriaefollowing a failed conspiracy to overthrow emperorTiberiusin AD 31. His statues were destroyed and his name obliterated from allpublic records.The above coin fromAugusta Bilbilis,originally struck to mark the consulship of Sejanus, has the wordsL. Aelio Seianoobliterated.

In ancient Rome, the practice ofdamnatio memoriaewas the condemnation ofemperorsafter their deaths. If the Senate or a later emperor did not like the acts of an emperor, they could have his property seized, his name erased and his statues reworked (normally defaced). Because there was an economic incentive to seize property and rework statues, historians and archaeologists have had difficulty determining when officialdamnatio memoriaeactually took place, although it seems to have been quite rare.

Compounding this difficulty is the fact that a completely successfuldamnatio memoriaeresults—by definition—in the full and total erasure of the subject from the historical record. In the case of figures such as emperors or consuls it is unlikely that complete success was possible, as even comprehensive obliteration of the person's existence and actions in records and the like would continue to be historically visible without extensive reworking. The impracticality of such a cover-up could be vast—in the case ofEmperor Geta,for example, coins bearing hiseffigyproved difficult to entirely remove from circulation for several years, even though the mere mention of his name was punishable by death.[13]

Difficulties in implementation also arose if there was not full and enduring agreement with the punishment, such as when the Senate's condemnation ofNerowas implemented—leading to attacks on many of his statues[14]—but subsequently evaded with the enormous funeral he was given byVitellius.Similarly, it was often difficult to prevent later historians from "resurrecting" the memory of the sanctioned person.

The impossibility of actually erasing memory of an emperor has led scholars to conclude that this was not actually the goal ofdamnatio.Instead, they understanddamnatio:

not so much as an attempt to obliterate memory entirely as to transform honorific commemoration into a form of visible denigration. That is: the power of an act of damnatio relies, at least in part, on the viewer of a monument being able to supplement the gaps in an inscription with their own knowledge of what those gaps had once contained, and the reasons why the text had been removed

— Polly Low,"Remembering, Forgetting, and Rewriting the Past"[15]

These emperors are known to have been erased from monuments:[16]

Emperor Reign Notes
Caligula 37–41 Disputed whether per senate decree[17][18]
Nero 54–68 hostis iudicatio(posthumous trial for treason)[17]
Domitian 81–96 per senate decree (96)[17]
Commodus 177–192 per senate decree (192)[17]
Clodius Albinus Usurper
Geta 209–211 per his brother Caracalla
Macrinus 217–218 Usurper
Diadumenian 217–218 Usurper
Elagabalus 218–222
Severus Alexander 222–235 Only during the reign of Maximinus Thrax
Maximinus Thrax 235–238 per senate decree (238)[17]
Maximus I Caesar only
Philip the Arab 244–249
Philip II 247–249 Philip the Arab's son
Decius 249–251
Herennius Etruscus 251 Decius' son
Hostilian 251 Decius' son
Aemilianus 253
Gallienus 253–268
Aurelian 270–275 Briefly
Probus 276–282
Carus 282–283
Carinus 284–285
Numerian 283–284
Diocletian 284–305
Maximian 286–305 per senate decree (310)[17]
Galerius 305–311
Valerius Severus 306–307
Maximinus II 308–313 per senate decree (313)[17]
Maxentius 306–312
Licinius 308–324
Constantine II 337–340
Constans 337–350
Magnentius Usurper
Magnus Maximus 383–388

Middle Ages

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TheDoge of VeniceMarino Faliero's portrait (right) was removed and painted over with a black shroud asdamnatio memoriaefor his attempted coup. The shroud bears the Latin phrase, "This is the space for Marino Faliero, beheaded for crimes."

In the Middle Ages,heresiarchscould have their memory condemned. TheCouncil of Constancedecreed thedamnatio memoriaeofJohn Wycliffe.[19]

The practice of replacingpaganbeliefs and motifs with Christian, and purposefully not recording the pagan history, has been compared todamnatio memoriaeas well.[20]

In her bookMedici Women - Portraits of Power, Love and Betrayal,Gabrielle Langdon also presents compelling evidence concerning a probable damnatio memoriae issued againstIsabella de' Medici,a prominent female figure of the 16th century Renaissance Medici court.[21]

Americas

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Ancient Maya

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Several apparentdamnatio memoriaeincidents occurred within theMaya civilizationduring theClassic period(AD 250–900) as a result of political conflicts between leaders of the local kingdoms.

One notable incident occurred in the kingdom of Paʼ Chan (modern-dayYaxchilan,Mexico) in the middle of the 8th century. In June 742, thek'uhulajaw(Holy Lord, i.e. king) of Pa' Chan,Itzamnaaj Bahlam III,died after a 60-year-long rule, during which he turned his kingdom into one of great riches after a large number of military campaigns which were recorded and illustrated on multiple high-qualitystelae,lintelsandhieroglyphicsteps of temples which he dedicated to his military success (e.g. Temple 44) and his family (e.g. Temple 23). Though he had a son who eventually ascended to the throne after his death, there was a mysterious decade-longinterregnumperiod in which Pa' Chan did not record the existence of any king. Itzamnaaj Bahlam's son,Yaxun Bʼalam IV,also known as Bird Jaguar IV, ascended to the throne in April 752, nearly ten years after his father's death.[22]

Thisinterregnumperiod may be explained by a text from the nearby northern kingdom of Yokib (modern-dayPiedras Negras,Guatemala). Panel 3 of this city, largely regarded as one of the most beautiful pieces ofMayan art,was carved approximately in 782 and illustrates an episode of the reign ofItzam Kʼan Ahk II(also known as Pawaaj Kʼan Ahk II), in which he celebrated his firstkʼatun(period of 7200 days) as king, on July 27, 749. Panel 3 claims that the celebration "was witnessed by Sak Jukub Yopaat Bahlam, Holy Lord of Paʼ Chan." Also known as Yopaat Bahlam II, this mysterious ruler does not appear anywhere else in the historical record, not even in his supposed homeland. Moreoever, his respectful presence at a celebration in Yokib, Paʼ Chan's centuries-old and bitter rival (which had, in fact, scored a victory in battle against Itzamnaaj Bahlam III in 726), as well as the depiction of Itzam Kʼan Ahk apparently addressing a speech (now hardly readable, but probably involving an event of Paʼ Chan's past) toward a party from Paʼ Chan—which included his son and "heir to the throne" of Paʼ Chan (chʼok paʼchan ajaw), Sihyaj Ahkteʼ—, possibly indicate that he ruled as a vassal of Itzam Kʼan Ahk, or that he used the celebration as an opportunity to ask for Itzam Kʼan Ahk's support against Yaxun Bʼalam IV, his political rival.[23]This has led to the conclusion that if this man truly ruled Paʼ Chan, any records of his existence were destroyed during the reign of Yaxun Bʼalam IV, who notoriously led a massive propaganda campaign throughout his rule to claim legitimacy over the throne, which involved the rewriting of his kingdom's dynastic history and restoration of several historical records of previous kings. The immense texts writing Yaxun Bʼalam's own version of his kingdom's dynastic history may have been carved over existing records which would have been intentionally erased withplaster,possibly destroying the records of the king (or kings) of theinterregnum.[22]

It is possible Yopaat Bahlam and his son lived the rest of their lives in exile at Yokib, and that the "heir to the throne" never rose to power. Yopaat Bahlam may have been buried in Burial 13 of the city, judging from a text carved on fourSpondyluslimbatusshells found within it which bears his name and mentions that he had previously visited the city in January 747, also within theinterregnum.[23]

New Spain

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See also:Mexican Inquisition
The Chapultepec portrait of Moctezuma II, made in 1519 and intentionally damaged in the middle of the 18th century, is the only surviving Chapultepec portrait of a Mexica monarch.

Notorious incidents ofdamnatio memoriaeoccurred during the existence of theViceroyalty of New Spain,theSpanish colonythat emerged after theSpanish conquest of Mexicoin 1521. Variousviceroysordered the destruction of monuments and documents depicting certain episodes ofpre-ColumbianMesoamericanhistory and rebels to Spanish rule over the Americas.

For instance,Moctezuma I(not to be confused with his more famous great-grandsonMoctezuma II), 15th-centuryhuei tlahtoani(Great Speaker, i.e. emperor) of theExcan Tlahtoloyan(lit.Triple Capital),[24]known by historians as the Mexica orAztec Empire(also known as the Aztec Triple Alliance, whose inhabitants referred to themselves as Culhua-Mexica), ordered the creation of a portrait of himself and of his military and political advisorTlacaelelatChapultepec,a historically and naturally important site which nowadays is withinMexico City.This became a tradition among subsequent Mexica rulers, and portraits ofAxayacatlandAhuizotl,two of Moctezuma's successors, were also made throughout the rest of the century (Tizoc's absence may be explained by his sudden death from poisoning). Moctezuma II would create the last portrait of this kind in 1519 (whichHajovsky (2015,p. 118) believes might be "the last Aztec monument" ), at the eve of the Spanish conquest.

Antonio de León y Gama,a distinguished Mexican intellectual, wrote in the late 18th century that these portraits were well preserved up until that century. León y Gama claimed that the only portrait he got to see himself was Moctezuma II's, before its destruction was ordered by the authorities in 1753 or 1754. He mentioned that Axayacatl's portrait still existed earlier in that century before it was "broken up and removed." Indeed, the remains of Moctezuma's portrait, approximately 2 meters (over 6 feet) high, reveal that its damage was not accidental or natural. It was carved on pink-to-grayandesite,which is "slightly harder thanmarble,"according to Hajovsky. The markings in the damaged parts show that apparently its destruction was executed with the dropping of a boulder, and that deep holes were drilled" perhaps in order to pry the stone apart or blow it up. "

In another notorious instance, SpanishbishopJuan de Zumárragaordered the destruction of a portrait depictingNezahualcoyotl,king ofTexcoco,on July 7, 1539, along with various other sculptures at the Hill ofTexcotzingo"in a manner such that they would no longer be remembered,"[25]a clear example ofdamnatio memoriae.

During theMexican War of Independence,which started in 1810, one of the earliest revolutionary leaders,Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla,nowadays remembered as anational Hero,was executed by the Spanish authorities in 1811. After his execution, according to contemporary accounts, the authorities declared adamnatio memoriae.According to one of Hidalgo's soldiers, Pedro García (1790–1873), "the fierce war against Hidalgo's memory and his ideas" was done through strict censorship.

It became illegal to speak about Hidalgo anywhere, it became a great crime that was severely punished. This is the reason why no portrait which resembles him at all is found anywhere in the country, since the prohibition lasted nearly ten years. Nobody felt safe speaking inside their homes.

The Spanish efforts to erase his memory, however, were in vain. The War of Independence continued, and the leaders who continued to revolution after Hidalgo's death made great efforts to commemorate his legacy.José María Morelos,for example, declared in 1813 that September 16, the anniversary of the beginning of the war, would be celebrated every year "remembering always the merit of the great HeroDonMiguel Hidalgo and his partner DonIgnacio Allende."[26]

Similar practices in modern times

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Alexander Malchenko, anearly socialistrevolutionary, removed due to his support ofJ. Martov
Nikolai Yezhovremoved after his 1940 execution
Main article:Censorship of images in the Soviet Union

While completedamnatio memoriaehas not been attempted in modern times—naming or writing about a person fallen from favour has never been made subject to formal punishment—less total instances ofdamnatio memoriaein modern times include numerous examples from theSoviet Union,retouching photos to remove individuals such asLeon Trotsky,[27]Nikolay Yezhov,[28]and evenStalin.[29]After Stalin ordered the murder ofGrigory Kulik's wife Kira Kulik-Simonich, all photographic records of her were destroyed; although she was described as very pretty, no photographs or other images of her survive.[30]Following their fall from favour,Lavrentiy Beriaand others were removed from articles in theGreat Soviet Encyclopedia.[31]Following thefall of communismin Eastern Europe, many communist statues, particularly of Lenin and Stalin, were removed from former Soviet satellite states.[32]Following a 2015 decision, a process ofdecommunization in Ukrainesuccessfully dismantled all 1,320 statues ofLeninafter its independence, as well as renaming roads and structures named under Soviet authority.[33]

The graphic designerDavid Kinghad a strong interest in Soviet art and design, and amassed a collection of over 250,000 images. His most striking examples of before-and-after alterations were published asThe Commissar Vanishes.

Poland

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19th century Polish writers often omitted mentioning two kings from the list of Polish monarchs,BezprymandWenceslaus III of Bohemia,which has resulted in their being omitted from many later works as well.[34]

China

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The treatment of Chinese politicianZhao Ziyangfollowing his fall from grace inside theChinese Communist Partyis regarded as another modern case ofdamnatio memoriae.[35]

Germany

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The destruction of all copies ofThe Victory of Faithin order to eraseErnst Röhmis considered an act ofNazidamnatio memoriae.[36]In the end, two copies survived: one preserved in London and one preserved by the Communist government of East Germany.[37]

North Korea

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In December 2013,Jang Song-thaekwas abruptly accused of being acounter-revolutionaryand was stripped of all his posts, expelled from theWorkers' Party of Korea(WPK), arrested and executed. His photos were removed from official media and his imagedigitally removedfrom photos with other North Korean leaders.[38]


Analysis

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The term is used in modern scholarship to cover a wide array of official and unofficial sanctions through which the physical remnants and memories of a deceased individual are destroyed.[39][40]

Looking at cases ofdamnatio memoriaein modernIrishhistory,Guy Beinerhas argued that iconoclastic vandalism only makesmartyrsof the "dishonored", thusensuring that they will be rememberedfor all time.[41]Nonetheless, Beiner goes on to argue that the purpose ofdamnatio memoriae—rather than being to erase people from history—was to guarantee only negative memories of those who were so dishonored.[41][42]Pointing out thatdamnatio memoriaedid not erase people from history but in effect kept their memory alive,[42]Beiner concluded that those who partake in the destruction of a monument should be considered agents of memory.[43]

Author Charles Hedrick proposes that a distinction be made betweendamnatio memoriae(the condemnation of a deceased person) andabolitio memoriae(the actual erasure of another from historical texts).[44]

In case of removal of Soviet monuments inEastern Europe,the primary reason was that they were established as a symbol of occupation, domination orcult of personality,rather than simple historic mark. It has been pointed out that all Nazi-established monuments and street names have been removed afterWorld War IIwhich has been perceived as natural reaction after liberation at that time.[45][46]

See also

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References

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  19. ^"Article".riviste.unimi.it.RetrievedMay 31,2020.
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  21. ^Langdon, Gabrielle (2007).Medici Women - Portraits of Power, Love and Betrayal.University of Toronto Press. p. 146.ISBN978-0-8020-9526-8.
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  35. ^Gerard, Bonnie."Damnatio Memoriae in China: Zhao Ziyang Is Laid to Rest".thediplomat.com.The Diplomat.RetrievedNovember 15,2019.
  36. ^Jorge Álvarez (November 19, 2019).""La victoria de la fe", el documental propagandístico del nazismo que Hitler mandó destruir ".La Brújula Verde(in Spanish).RetrievedDecember 17,2021.se aplicó una damnatio memoriae sobre el fallecido mandatario y, dado que salía en bastantes escenas de La victoria de la fe, se ordenó la destrucción de todas las copias existentes
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  40. ^Friedland, Elise A.; Sobocinski, Melanie Grunow; Gazda, Elaine K.The Oxford Handbook of Roman Sculpture.Oxford. p. 669.
  41. ^abBeiner, Guy(2018).Forgetful Remembrance: Social Forgetting and Vernacular; Historiography of a Rebellion in Ulster.Oxford University Press.pp.380–381.ISBN978-0198749356.
  42. ^abBeiner, Guy (2007).Remembering the Year of the French: Irish Folk History and Social Memory.Madison:University of Wisconsin Press.p. 305.ISBN978-0-299-21824-9.
  43. ^Beiner, Guy (2021). "When Monuments Fall: The Significance of Decommemorating".Éire-Ireland.56(1):33–61.doi:10.1353/eir.2021.0001.S2CID240526743.
  44. ^Hedrick, Charles W. Jr. (2000).History and Silence: Purge and Rehabilitation of Memory in Late Antiquity.Austin:University of Texas Press.p. 93.ISBN978-0292718739.Archived fromthe originalon June 11, 2022.RetrievedFebruary 20,2021.
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  46. ^"Should Soviet monuments be dismantled or preserved? – DW – 07/09/2023".dw.com.RetrievedSeptember 6,2023.

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