Dhaka(/ˈdɑːkə/DAH-kəor/ˈdækə/DAK-ə;Bengali:ঢাকা,romanized:Ḍhākā,pronounced[ˈɖʱaka]),formerly known asDacca,[17]is thecapitalandlargest cityofBangladesh.It is theninth-largestandseventh-most densely populated cityin the world. Dhaka is amegacity,and has a population of 10.2 million residents as of 2022, and a population of over 22.4 million residents inDhaka Metropolitan Area.[18][19][20]It is widely considered to be the most densely populated built-upurban areain the world.[21][22]Dhaka is the most important cultural, economic, and scientific hub ofEastern South Asia,as well as a majorMuslim-majority city.Dhaka ranksthird in South Asia and 39th in the worldin terms ofGDP.Lying on theGanges Delta,it is bounded by theBuriganga,Turag,DhaleshwariandShitalakshyarivers. Dhaka is also the largestBengali-speakingcity in the world.
The area of Dhaka has been inhabited since the first millennium. Anearly moderncity developed from the 17th century as a provincial capital and commercial centre of theMughal Empire.Dhaka was the capital of aproto-industrialisedMughal Bengalfor 75 years (1608–39 and 1660–1704). It was the hub of themuslin trade in Bengaland one of the most prosperous cities in the world. The Mughal city was named Jahangirnagar (The City of Jahangir) in honour of the erstwhile ruling emperorJahangir.[23][24][25]The city's wealthy Mughal elite included princes and the sons of Mughal emperors. The pre-colonial city's glory peaked in the 17th and 18th centuries when it was home to merchants from acrossEurasia.ThePort of Dhakawas a major trading post for both riverine and seaborne trade. The Mughals decorated the city with well-laid gardens, tombs, mosques, palaces, and forts. The city was once called theVenice of the East.[26]
UnderBritish rule,the city saw the introduction ofelectricity,railways,cinemas,Western-style universities and colleges and a modernwater supply.It became an important administrative and educational centre in the British Raj, as the capital ofEastern Bengal and Assamprovince after 1905.[27]In 1947, after the end of British rule, the city became the administrative capital ofEast Pakistan.It was declared the legislative capital of Pakistan in 1962. In 1971, after theLiberation War,it became the capital of independent Bangladesh. In 2008, Dhaka celebrated 400 years as a municipal city.[28][29][30]
Abeta-global city,[31]Dhaka is the centre of political, economic and cultural life in Bangladesh. It is the seat of theGovernment of Bangladesh,manyBangladeshi companies,and leading Bangladeshi educational, scientific, research, and cultural organizations. Since its establishment as a modern capital city, the population, area and social and economic diversity of Dhaka have grown tremendously. The city is now one of the most densely industrialized regions in the country. The city accounts for 35% ofBangladesh's economy.[32]TheDhaka Stock Exchangehas over 750 listed companies. Dhaka hosts over 50diplomatic missions;as well as the headquarters ofBIMSTEC,CIRDAP,and theInternational Jute Study Group.Dhaka has a renowned culinary heritage. The city's culture is known for itsrickshaws,Kachi Biryani,art festivals,street food, and religious diversity. Dhaka's most prominent architectural landmark is the modernistJatiyo Sangshad Bhaban;while it has a heritage of 2000 buildings from the Mughal and British periods.[33]The city is associated with two Nobel laureates. Dhaka's annual Bengali New Year parade, itsJamdanisari, and its rickshaw art have been recognized by UNESCO as the intangible cultural heritage of humanity.[34][35][36]The city has produced many writers and poets in several languages, especially in Bengali and English.
Etymology
The origins of the name Dhaka are uncertain. It may derive from thedhaktree, which was once common in the area, or fromDhakeshwari,the 'patron goddess' of the region.[37][38]Another popular theory states that Dhaka refers to amembranophoneinstrument,dhakwhich was played by order ofSubahdarIslam Khan Iduring the inauguration of the Bengal capital in 1610.[39]
Some references also say it was derived from aPrakritdialect called Dhaka Bhasa; or Dhakka, used in theRajtaranginifor a watch station; or it is the same as Davaka, mentioned in theAllahabadpillar inscription ofSamudraguptaas an eastern frontier kingdom.[40]According toRajataranginiwritten by a Kashmiri Brahman,Kalhana,[41]the region was originally known asDhakka.The wordDhakkameanswatchtower.BikrampurandSonargaon—the earlier strongholds of Bengal rulers were situated nearby. So Dhaka was most likely used as the watchtower for fortification purpose.[41]
History
Pre-Mughal
The history of urban settlements in the area of modern-day Dhaka dates to the first millennium.[42]The region was part of the ancient district ofBikrampur,which was ruled by theSena dynasty.[43]UnderIslamicrule, it became part of the historic district ofSonargaon,the regional administrative hub of theDelhiand theBengal Sultanates.[44]TheGrand Trunk Roadpassed through the region, connecting it withNorth India,Central Asia and the southeastern port city of Chittagong. Before Dhaka, the capital of Bengal wasGour.Even earlier capitals includedPandua,Bikrampur and Sonargaon. The latter was also the seat ofIsa Khanand his sonMusa Khan,who both headed a confederation of twelve chieftains that resisted Mughal expansion in eastern Bengal during the late 16th century. Due to a change in the course of the Ganges, the strategic importance of Gour was lost. Dhaka was viewed with strategic importance due to the Mughal need to consolidate control in eastern Bengal. The Mughals also planned to extend their empire beyond intoAssamandArakan.Dhaka and Chittagong became the eastern frontiers of the Mughal Empire.
Early period of Mughal Bengal
Dhaka became the capital of the Mughal province of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in 1610 with a jurisdiction covering modern-day Bangladesh andeastern India,including the modern-dayIndian statesofWest Bengal,BiharandOrissa.This province was known asBengal Subah.The city was founded during the reign ofEmperor Jahangir.EmperorShah Jahanvisited Dhaka in 1624 and stayed in the city for a week, four years before he became emperor in 1628.[45]Dhaka became one of the richest and greatest cities in the world during the early period of Bengal Subah (1610-1717). The prosperity of Dhaka reached its peak during the administration of governorShaista Khan(1644-1677 and 1680–1688). Rice was then sold at eight maunds per rupee. Thomas Bowrey, an English merchant sailor who visited the city between 1669 and 1670, wrote that the city was 40 miles in circuit. He estimated the city to be more populated thanLondonwith 900,000 people.[46]
Bengal became the economic engine of the Mughal Empire. Dhaka played a key role in theproto-industrialisationof Bengal. It was the centre of themuslin trade in Bengal,leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets as far away asCentral Asia.[47]Mughal India depended on Bengali products like rice, silk and cotton textiles. European East India Companies from Britain, Holland, France, and Denmark also depended on Bengali products. Bengal accounted for 40% ofDutchimports from Asia, with many products being sold to Dutch ships in Bengali harbours and then transported toBataviain theDutch East Indies.Bengal accounted for 50% of textiles and 80% of silks in Dutch textile imports from Asia.[48]Silk was also exported to premodernJapan.[49]The region had a largeshipbuilding industrywhich supplied theMughal Navy.The shipbuilding output of Bengal during the 16th and 17th centuries stood at 223,250 tons annually, compared to 23,061 tons produced by North America from 1769 to 1771.[50]The Mughals decorated the city with well-laid-out gardens.Caravanseraiincluded theBara KatraandChoto Katra.The architect of the palatial Bara Katra was Abul Qashim Al Hussaini Attabatayi Assemani.[51]According to inscriptions in the Bangladesh National Museum, the ownership of Bara Katra was entrusted to an Islamicwaqf.[51]The Bara Katra also served as a residence for Mughal governors, including PrinceShah Shuja(the son of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan).[51]Dhaka was home to an array of Mughal bureaucrats and military officials, as well as members of the imperial family. The city was guarded byMughal artillerylike theBibi Mariam Cannon(Lady Mary Cannon).
Islam Khan Iwas the first Mughal governor to reside in the city.[52]Khan named it "Jahangir Nagar" (The City of Jahangir) in honour of the Emperor Jahangir. The name was dropped soon after the English conquered. The main expansion of the city took place under Governor Shaista Khan. The city then measured 19 by 13 kilometres (11.8 by 8.1 mi), with a population of nearly one million.[53]Dhaka became home to one of the richest elites in Mughal India.[54] The construction ofLalbagh Fortwas commenced in 1678 byPrince Azam Shah,who was the governor of Bengal, a son ofEmperor Aurangzeband a futureMughal Emperorhimself. The Lalbagh Fort was intended to be the viceregal residence of Mughal governors in eastern India. Before the fort's construction could be completed, the prince was recalled by Emperor Aurangzeb. The fort's construction was halted by Shaista Khan after the death of his daughterPari Bibi,who is buried in a tomb in the centre of the unfinished fort. Pari Bibi, whose name meansFairy Lady,was legendary for her beauty, engaged to Prince Azam Shah, and a potential future Mughal empress before her premature death.[55]Internal conflict in the Mughal court cut short Dhaka's growth as an imperial city. Prince Azam Shah's rivalry withMurshid Quli Khanresulted in Dhaka losing its status as the provincial capital. In 1717, the provincial capital was shifted toMurshidabadwhere Murshid Quli Khan declared himself as theNawab of Bengal.
Naib Nizamat
Under the Nawabs of Bengal, theNaib Nazim of Dhakawas in charge of the city. The Naib Nazim was the deputy governor of Bengal. He also dealt with the upkeep of the Mughal Navy. The Naib Nazim was in charge of the Dhaka Division, which included Dhaka,Comilla,and Chittagong. Dhaka Division was one of the four divisions under the Nawabs of Bengal. The Nawabs of Bengal allowed European trading companies to establish factories across Bengal. The region then became a hotbed for European rivalries. The British moved to oust the last independent Nawab of Bengal in 1757, who was allied with the French. Due to the defection of Nawab's army chiefMir Jafarto the British side, the last Nawab lost theBattle of Plassey.[citation needed]
After theBattle of Buxarin 1765, theTreaty of Allahabadallowed the British East India Company to become the tax collector in Bengal on behalf of the Mughal Emperor in Delhi. The Naib Nazim continued to function until 1793 when all his powers were transferred to the East India Company. The city formally passed to the control of the East India Company in 1793. British military raids damaged a lot of the city's infrastructure.[56]The military conflict caused a sharp decline in the urban population.[57]Dhaka's fortunes received a boost with connections to the mercantile networks of theBritish Empire.[58]With the dawn of theIndustrial RevolutioninBritain,Dhaka became a leading centre of thejute trade,as Bengal accounted for the largest share of the world'sjuteproduction.[59] But the British neglected Dhaka's industrial and urban development until the late 19th century. Income from the pre-colonial, proto-industrialized textile industry dried up. Bengali weavers went out of business after the imposition of a 75% tax on the export of cotton from Bengal,[60]as well as the surge in imports of cheap, British-manufactured fabrics after the advent of the spinning mule and steam power.[citation needed]The rapid growth of the colonial capitalCalcuttacontributed to the decline in Dhaka's population and economy in the early 1800s. In 1824, an Anglican bishop described Dhaka as a "city of magnificent ruins".[61]
Trade and migration
Dhaka hosted factories of the English East India Company, theDutch East India Company,[62]andFrench East India Company.[63]The property of theAhsan Manzilwas initially bought by the French for their factory and later sold to the Dhaka Nawab Family. The Portuguese were reportedly responsible for introducingcheese.[64][65]Dhaka saw an influx of migrants during the Mughal Empire. AnArmenian communityfrom theSafavid Empiresettled in Dhaka and was involved in the city's textile trade, paying a 3.5% tax.[66]The Armenians were very active in the city's social life. They opened thePogose School.Marwariswere the Hindu trading community. Dhaka also became home toJewsand Greeks.[67][68]The city has aGreek memorial.Several families of Dhaka's elite spokeUrduand included Urdu poets.Persiansalso settled in the city to serve as administrators and military commanders of the Mughal government in Bengal.[69]The legacy of cosmopolitan trading communities lives on in the names of neighbourhoods in Old Dhaka, includingFarashganj(French Bazaar),Armanitola(Armenian Quarter) and Postogola (Portuguese Quarter).
According to those who lived in the historic city, "Dhaka was a courtly, genteel town – the very last flowering, in their telling, of Mughal etiquette and sensibility. It is this history that is today still reflected in the faded grandeur of the old city, now crumbling due to decades of neglect. The narrow, winding, high-walled lanes and alleyways, the old high-ceilinged houses with verandas and balconies, the old neighbourhoods, the graveyards and gardens, the mosques, the grand old mansions – these are all still there if one goes looking".[70]Railway stations, postal departments, civil service posts and river port stations were often staffed byAnglo-Indians.[71]
The city's hinterland supplied rice, jute,gunny sacks,turmeric, ginger, leather hides, silk, rugs,saltpeter,[72]salt,[73]sugar,indigo,cotton, and iron.[74]British opium policy in Bengal contributed to theOpium WarswithChina.American traders collected artwork, handicrafts, terracotta, sculptures, religious and literary texts, manuscripts, and military weapons from Bengal. Some objects from the region are on display in thePeabody Essex Museum.[74]The increase in international trade led to profits for many families in the city, allowing them to buy imported luxury goods.
British Raj
During theIndian mutiny of 1857,the city witnessed revolts by theBengal Army.[75]Direct rule by the British crownwas established following the successful quelling of the mutiny. It bestowed privileges on the Dhaka Nawab Family, which dominated the city's political and social elite. TheDhaka Cantonmentwas established as a base for theBritish Indian Army.The British developed the modern city aroundRamna,ShahbagGarden, andVictoria Park.Dhaka got its own version of thehansom cabas public transport in 1856.[76]The number of carriages increased from 60 in 1867 to 600 in 1889.[76]
A modern civic water system was introduced in 1874.[77]In 1885, the Dhaka State Railway was opened with a 144 km metre gauge (1000 mm) rail line connectingMymensinghand thePort of Narayanganjthrough Dhaka.[78]The city later became a hub of theEastern Bengal State Railway.[78]The firstfilmshown in Dhaka was screened on the Riverfront Crown Theatre on 17 April 1898.[79]The film show was organized by the Bedford Bioscope Company.[79]The electricity supply began in 1901.[80]
This period is described as being "the colonial-era part of Dhaka, developed by the British during the early 20th century. Similar to colonial boroughs the length and breadth of the Subcontinent, this development was typified by stately government buildings, spacious tree-lined avenues, and sturdy white-washed bungalows set amidst always overgrown (the British never did manage to fully tame the landscape) gardens. Once upon a time, this was the new city; and even though it is today far from the ritziest part of town, the streets here are still wider and the trees more abundant and the greenery more evident than in any other part".[70]
Some of the early educational institutions established during the period of British rule include theDhaka College,theDhaka Medical School,theEden College,St. Gregory's School,the Mohsinia Madrasa,Jagannath Collegeand theAhsanullah School of Engineering.Horse racingwas a favourite pastime for elite residents in the city's Ramna Race Course beside theDhaka Club.[81]TheViceroy of Indiawould often dine and entertain with Bengali aristocrats in the city.Automobilesbegan appearing after the turn of the century. A 1937Sunbeam-Talbot Tenwas preserved in the Liberation War Museum. The Nawabs of Dhaka ownedRolls-Royces.Austincars were widely used.Beauty Boardingwas a popular inn and restaurant.
Dhaka's fortunes changed in the early 20th century. British neglect of Dhaka's urban development was overturned with thefirst partition of Bengalin 1905, which restored Dhaka's status as a regional capital. The city became the seat of government forEastern Bengal and Assam,with a jurisdiction covering most of modern-day Bangladesh and all of what is nowNortheast India.The partition was the brainchild ofLord Curzon,who finally acted on British ideas for partitioning Bengal to improve administration, education, and business. Dhaka became the seat of theEastern Bengal and Assam Legislative Council.While Dhaka was the main capital throughout the year,Shillongacted as the summer retreat of the administration. Lieutenant Governors were in charge of the province. They resided in Dhaka. The Lt Governors included SirBampfylde Fuller(1905-1906), Sir Lancelot Hare (1906-1911), andSir Charles Stuart Bayley(1911-1912). Their legacy lives on in the names of three major thoroughfares in modern Dhaka, including Hare Road,[82]Bayley Road,and Fuller Road.[83]The period saw the construction of stately buildings, including the High Court and Curzon Hall. The city was home to diverse groups of people, includingArmenians,Jews,[84]Anglo-Indians and Hindus. The Hindus included bothMarwarisandBengali Hindus,with a plurality emerging by 1941 and engaged in professions like teaching, medicine, law, and business.[85]
Dhaka was the seat of government for 4 administrative divisions, including the Assam Valley Division, Chittagong Division, Dacca Division, Rajshahi Division, and the Surma Valley Division. There were a total of 30 districts in Eastern Bengal and Assam, including Dacca, Mymensingh, Faridpur andBackergungein Dacca Division;Tippera,Noakhali, Chittagong and theHill Tractsin Chittagong Division; Rajshahi, Dinajpur,Jalpaiguri,Rangpur, Bogra, Pabna andMaldain Rajshahi Division; Sylhet,Cachar,theKhasi and Jaintia Hills,theNaga Hillsand theLushai Hillsin Surma Valley Division; andGoalpara,Kamrup,theGaro Hills,Darrang,Nowgong,SibsagarandLakhimpurin Assam Valley Division.[86]The province was bordered byCooch Behar State,Hill Tipperahand theKingdom of Bhutan.
On the political front, partition allowed Dhaka to project itself as the standard-bearer of Muslim communities inBritish India;as opposed to the heavily Hindu-dominated city of Calcutta.[59]In 1906, theAll India Muslim Leaguewas founded in the city during a conference on liberal education hosted by theNawab of Dhakaand theAga Khan III.The Muslim population in Dhaka and eastern Bengal generally favoured partition in the hopes of getting better jobs and educational opportunities. Many Bengalis, however, opposed the bifurcation of the ethnolinguistic region. The partition was annulled by an announcement from KingGeorge Vduring theDelhi Durbarin 1911. The British decided to reunite Bengal while thecapital of Indiawas shifted toNew Delhifrom Calcutta.
As a "splendid compensation" for the annulment of partition,[87]the British gave the city a newly formed university in the 1920s. TheUniversity of Dhakawas initially modelled on the residential style of theUniversity of Oxford.It became known as theOxford of the Eastbecause of its residential character. Like Oxford, students in Dhaka were affiliated with their halls of residence instead of their academic departments (this system was dropped after 1947 and students are now affiliated with academic departments).[88][89]The university's faculty included scientistSatyendra Nath Bose(who is the namesake of theHiggs boson); linguistMuhammad Shahidullah,Sir A F Rahman(the first Bengali vice-chancellor of the university); and historianR. C. Majumdar.[89]The university was established in 1921 by theImperial Legislative Council.It started with three faculties and 12 departments, covering the subjects of Sanskrit, Bengali, English,liberal arts,history, Arabic, Islamic Studies, Persian, Urdu, philosophy, economics, politics, physics, chemistry, mathematics, and law.
The East Bengal Cinematograph Company produced the first full-lengthsilent moviesin Dhaka during the 1920s, includingSukumariandThe Last Kiss.[79]DEVCO, a subsidiary of the Occtavian Steel Company, began widescalepowerdistribution in 1930.[80]TheTejgaon Airportwas constructed duringWorld War IIas a base forAllied Forces.TheDhaka Medical Collegewas established in 1946.
At the time of the partition of India, many rich Hindu families relocated to West Bengal. Their properties were seized by the state under laws that eventually became known as theVested Property Act.[90]
Metropolitan Dhaka
The development of the "real city" began after thepartition of India.[70]After partition, Dhaka became known as thesecond capitalofPakistan.[70][91]This was formalized in 1962 whenAyub Khandeclared the city as the legislative capital under the1962 constitution.New neighbourhoods began to spring up in formerly barren and agrarian areas. These included Dhanmondi (rice granary), Katabon (thorn forest), Kathalbagan (jackfruit grove), Kalabagan (banana grove), Segunbagicha (teak grove) and Gulshan (flower garden).[70][92]Living standards rapidly improved from the pre-partition standards.[93]The economy began to industrialize. On the outskirts of the city, theworld's largest jute millwas built. The mill produced jute goods which were in high demand during theKorean War.[94]People began building duplex houses. In 1961,Queen Elizabeth IIandPrince Philipwitnessed the improved living standards of Dhaka's residents.[95]TheIntercontinental hotel,designed byWilliam B. Tabler,was opened in 1966. Estonian-American architectLouis I. Kahnwas enlisted to design the Dhaka Assembly, which was originally intended to be the federal parliament of Pakistan and later became independent Bangladesh's parliament. TheEast Pakistan Helicopter Serviceconnected the city to regional towns.
TheDhaka Stock Exchangewas opened on 28 April 1954. The first local airlineOrient Airwaysbegan flights between Dhaka andKarachion 6 June 1954. TheDhaka Improvement Trustwas established in 1956 to coordinate the city's development. The first master plan for the city was drawn up in 1959.[96]TheSoutheast Asia Treaty Organizationestablished a medical research centre (now calledICDDR,B) in the city in 1960.
The early period of political turbulence was seen between 1947 and 1952, particularly theBengali Language Movement.From the mid-1960s, the Awami League's 6-point autonomy demands began giving rise to pro-independence aspirations acrossEast Pakistan.In 1969,Sheikh Mujibur Rahmanwas released from prison amid a mass upsurge which led to the resignation of Ayub Khan in 1970. The city had an influential press with prominent newspapers like thePakistan Observer,Ittefaq,Forum,and theWeekly Holiday.During the political and constitutional crisis in 1971, themilitary juntaled byYahya Khanrefused to transfer power to the newly elected National Assembly, causing mass riots, civil disobedience, and a movement forself-determination.On 7 March 1971,Awami Leagueleader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman addressed a massive public gathering at theRamna Race Course Maidanin Dhaka, in which he warned of an independence struggle.[97][98]Subsequently, East Pakistan came under anon-co-operationmovement against the Pakistani state. On Pakistan's Republic Day (23 March 1971),Bangladeshi flagswere hoisted throughout Dhaka in a show of resistance.[99]
On 25 March 1971, thePakistan Armylaunched military operations underOperation Searchlightagainst the population of East Pakistan.[100]Dhaka bore the brunt of the army's atrocities, witnessing agenocideand a campaign of wide-scale repression, with the arrest, torture, and murder of the city's civilians, students,intelligentsia,political activists and religious minorities. The army facedmutiniesfrom theEast Pakistan Riflesand the Bengali police.[101]Large parts of the city were burnt and destroyed, including Hindu neighbourhoods.[100]Much of the city's population was either displaced or forced to flee to the countryside.[102]Dhaka was struck with numerous air raids by theIndian Air ForceinDecember.[103]The Pakistan Eastern Commandsurrenderedto Lt. Gen.Jagjit Singh Auroraat the Ramna Race Course in Dhaka on 16 December 1971.[104]
After independence, Dhaka's population grew from several hundred thousand to several million in five decades. Dhaka was declared the national capital by theConstituent Assembly of Bangladeshin 1972. The post-independence period witnessed rapid growth as Dhaka attracted migrant workers from across ruralBangladesh.60% of population growth has been due to rural migration.[105]The city enduredsocialistunrest in the early 1970s, followed by a few years ofmartial law.The stock exchange andfree marketwere restored in the late 1970s. In the 1980s, Dhaka saw the inauguration of theNational Parliament House(which won theAga Khan Award for Architecture), a newinternational airportand theBangladesh National Museum.Bangladesh pioneered the formation of theSouth Asian Association for Regional Cooperation(SAARC) and hosted its first summit in Dhaka in 1985.[106]A mass uprising in 1990 led to the return ofparliamentary democracy.Dhaka hosted a trilateral summit between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh in 1998;[107]the summit of theD-8 Organization for Economic Cooperationin 1999 and conferences of theCommonwealth,SAARC, the OIC andUnited Nationsagencies during various years.
In the 1990s and 2000s, Dhaka experienced improved economic growth and the emergence of affluent business districts and satellite towns.[108]Between 1990 and 2005, the city's population doubled from 6 million to 12 million.[109]There has been increasedforeign investmentin the city, particularly in the financial and textile manufacturing sectors. Between 2008 and 2011, thegovernment of Bangladeshorganized three years of celebrations to mark 400 years since Dhaka's founding as an early modern city.[28][29][30]But frequenthartalsby political parties have greatly hampered the city's economy.[110]The hartal rate has declined since 2014. In some years, the city experienced a widespreadflash floodduring the monsoon.
Dhaka is one of the fastest-growing megacities in the world.[111]It is predicted to be one of the world's largest metropolises by 2025, along withTokyo,Mexico City,Shanghai,BeijingandNew York City.[112]Most of its population are rural migrants, includingclimate refugees.[113]Congestionis one of the most prominent features of modern Dhaka. In 2014, it was reported that only 7% of the city was covered by roads.[114]The first phase ofDhaka Metro RailfromUttaratoAgargaonwas inaugurated byPrime MinisterSheikh Hasinaon 28 December 2022.[115]However, nearly one third of Dhaka's population lives inslums,as of 2016.[116]The city's main river, theBuriganga River,has become one of the most polluted rivers in the country.[117][118]
Geography
Topography
Dhaka is located in central Bangladesh at23°42′N90°22′E/ 23.700°N 90.367°E,on the eastern banks of theBuriganga River.The city lies on the lower reaches of theGanges Deltaand covers a total area of 270 square kilometres (100 sq mi). Tropical vegetation and moist soils characterize the land, which is flat and close to sea level. This leaves Dhaka susceptible to flooding during themonsoonseasons owing to heavy rainfall andcyclones.[119]Due to its location on the lowland plain of the Ganges Delta, the city is fringed by extensive mangroves and tidal flat ecosystems.[120]Dhaka District is bounded by the districts ofGazipur,Tangail,Munshiganj,Rajbari,Narayanganj,andManikganj.
Cityscape
ExceptOld Dhaka,which is an oldbazaar-style neighbourhood, the layout of the city follows a grid pattern with organic development influenced by traditional South Asian as well as Middle Eastern and Western patterns. Growth of the city is largely unplanned and is focused on the northern regions and around the city centre, where many of the more affluent neighbourhoods may be found.[121]Most of the construction in the city consists of concretehigh-rise buildings.Middle-class and upper-class housing, along with commercial and industrial areas, occupy most of the city. However, nearly one third of Dhaka's population lives inslums,as of 2016 (see below).[116]
Dhaka does not have a well-definedcentral business district.Old Dhakais the historic commercial centre, but most development has moved to the north. In 1985, the area aroundMotijheelwas considered the "modern" CBD, while by 2005Gulshanwas considered the "newest" part of the CBD. Many Bangladeshi government institutions can be found in Motijheel,Segunbagicha,Tejgaon,Karwan Bazar,andSher-e-Bangla Nagar.[122]
Much activity is centred around a few large roads, where road laws are rarely obeyed and street vendors and beggars are frequently encountered.[121][123]
For much of recent history, Dhaka was characterized by roadside markets and small shops that sold a wide variety of goods.[124]Recent years have seen the widespread construction of shopping malls.[125]Two of the largest shopping malls in the city and the wider South Asian region are theJamuna Future ParkandBashundhara City.
Climate
Under theKöppen climate classification,Dhaka has atropical savanna climate(KöppenAw). The city has a distinct monsoonal season, with an annual average temperature of 26 °C (79 °F) and monthly means varying between 19 °C (66 °F) in January and 29 °C (84 °F) in May.[126]Approximately 87% of the average annual rainfall of 2,123 millimetres (83.6 inches) occurs between May and October.[126]
| Climate data for Dhaka (1991–2020) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 31.3 (88.3) |
35.9 (96.6) |
40.6 (105.1) |
42.3 (108.1) |
41.1 (106.0) |
38.7 (101.7) |
38.0 (100.4) |
37.5 (99.5) |
37.5 (99.5) |
37.4 (99.3) |
34.5 (94.1) |
33.0 (91.4) |
42.3 (108.1) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 24.6 (76.3) |
28.3 (82.9) |
32.4 (90.3) |
33.9 (93.0) |
33.6 (92.5) |
32.8 (91.0) |
32.1 (89.8) |
32.3 (90.1) |
32.4 (90.3) |
31.9 (89.4) |
29.7 (85.5) |
26.1 (79.0) |
30.8 (87.4) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 18.4 (65.1) |
22.1 (71.8) |
26.4 (79.5) |
28.6 (83.5) |
28.9 (84.0) |
29.1 (84.4) |
28.9 (84.0) |
29.0 (84.2) |
28.7 (83.7) |
27.5 (81.5) |
24.0 (75.2) |
19.9 (67.8) |
26.0 (78.8) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 13.3 (55.9) |
16.6 (61.9) |
21.1 (70.0) |
24.0 (75.2) |
24.9 (76.8) |
26.3 (79.3) |
26.4 (79.5) |
26.5 (79.7) |
26.0 (78.8) |
24.1 (75.4) |
19.5 (67.1) |
15.2 (59.4) |
22.0 (71.6) |
| Record low °C (°F) | 5.6 (42.1) |
6.7 (44.1) |
10.6 (51.1) |
16.6 (61.9) |
17.9 (64.2) |
21.5 (70.7) |
21.1 (70.0) |
21.7 (71.1) |
21.1 (70.0) |
17.2 (63.0) |
10.6 (51.1) |
7.2 (45.0) |
5.6 (42.1) |
| Averageprecipitationmm (inches) | 7 (0.3) |
21 (0.8) |
48 (1.9) |
128 (5.0) |
272 (10.7) |
317 (12.5) |
391 (15.4) |
315 (12.4) |
285 (11.2) |
174 (6.9) |
21 (0.8) |
11 (0.4) |
1,990 (78.3) |
| Average precipitation days(≥ 1 mm) | 1 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 14 | 17 | 21 | 21 | 17 | 10 | 2 | 1 | 118 |
| Averagerelative humidity(%) | 71 | 64 | 62 | 71 | 76 | 82 | 83 | 82 | 83 | 78 | 73 | 73 | 75 |
| Mean monthlysunshine hours | 190.9 | 207.0 | 237.3 | 223.8 | 206.9 | 145.2 | 140.4 | 143.9 | 142.6 | 192.2 | 206.5 | 186.9 | 2,223.6 |
| Source 1:NOAA[127] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: Bangladesh Meteorological Department (humidity 1981–2010),[128]Sistema de Clasificación Bioclimática Mundial (extremes 1934–1994)[129] | |||||||||||||
Parks and greenery
There are many parks within Dhaka City, includingRamna Park,Suhrawardy Udyan,Shishu Park,National Botanical Garden,Baldha Garden,Chandrima Uddan,Gulshan Park andDhaka Zoo.
Rivers and lakes
Almost 10% of the city's area consists of water: There are 676 ponds and 43 canals.[116]
TheBuriganga Riverflows past the southwest outskirts of Dhaka. Its average depth is 7.6 metres (25 ft) and its maximum depth is 18 metres (58 ft). It ranks among the most polluted rivers in the country.[117][118]
The city is surrounded by six interconnected river systems—the Buriganga andDhaleshwariin the southwest,Turagand Tongi Khal in the north, andBaluandSitalakhyain the east—which support trade, transport, and stormwater drainage.[130]
There are several lakes within the city, such as Crescent Lake,DhanmondiLake,Baridhara-Gulshan Lake,Banani lake,UttaraLake,Hatirjheel-BegunbariLake, 300 Feet Road Prionty lake, Ramna lake.[131][116]
Environmental pollution
Increasing air and water pollution affects public health and the quality of life in the city.[132]Theair pollutionis caused for example by vehicle traffic and congestion. Also, due to the unregulated manufacturing ofbricksand other causes, Dhaka has very high levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution.[133]
Water pollutionis caused by the discharge of municipal wastewater from households and industry without treatment. As of 2011 only 20% of the city is connected to asewer system,whereas 80% is not connected.[116]As a result, the rivers in Dhaka have severepathogenpollution, as indicated by thefecal coliformcount that is several hundred times higher than the recommended national and international standards of less than 200cfuper litre for bathing and swimming.[130]
In addition to the organic and pathogen pollution load from the 1.2 million m3of untreated sewage, the rivers receive about 60,000 m3of industrial effluent every day from nine major industrial clusters (as of 2021).[130]There are an estimated 500–700 wet processing anddyeingtextile factoriesreleasing a range of chemicals including salts, dyes and bleaches, and 155tanneriesdischargingheavy metals,includingchromium.[130]
Four of the rivers surrounding Dhaka—Buriganaga, Sitalakhya, Balu and Turag—are so polluted that they have been declared asecologically critical areasin 2009 by the Department of Environment. This makes them unsuitable for any human use.[130]Nevertheless, people living in low-income and slum areas still have a lot of direct contact with river water, exposing them to health risks. They use river water for dish washing, laundry, cleaning fish and vegetables, and personal washing, washing and dyeingdenim,washing fish baskets or plastic sheets, collecting plastic waste and fishing.[130]As a result, many of the immediate environmental burdens of river pollution are borne by these low-income residents.[130]
Water bodies andwetlandsaround Dhaka are facing destruction as these are being filled up to construct multi-storied buildings and other real estate developments. Coupled with pollution, such erosion of natural habitats threatens to destroy much of the regional biodiversity.[132]
Government
Capital city
As the capital of thePeople's Republic of Bangladesh,Dhaka is home to numerous state and diplomatic institutions. TheBangabhabanis the official residence and workplace of thePresident of Bangladesh,who is the ceremonial head of state under the constitution. TheNational Parliament Houseis located in the modernist capital complex designed byLouis KahninSher-e-Bangla Nagar.TheGanabhaban,the official residence of thePrime Minister,is situated on the north side of Parliament. ThePrime Minister's Officeis located in Tejgaon. Most ministries of theGovernment of Bangladeshare housed in the Bangladesh Secretariat.[134]TheSupreme Court,theDhaka High Courtand theForeign Ministryare located in theSegunbagicha-Shahbagharea. TheDefence Ministryand theMinistry of Planningare located in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar.[134]TheArmed Forces Divisionof the government of Bangladesh and the army, navy and air force HQs of theBangladesh Armed Forcesare located in Dhaka Cantonment.[134]Several important installations of theBangladesh Armyare also situated in Dhaka andMirpur Cantonments.TheBangladesh Navy's principal administrative and logistics base,BNS Haji Mohshin,is located in Dhaka.[135]TheBangladesh Air Forcemaintains the BAF Bangabandhu Air Base and BAF Khademul Bashar Air Base in Dhaka.[136]
Dhaka hosts54 resident embassies and high commissionsand numerous international organizations. Most diplomatic missions are located in theGulshanandBaridharaareas of the city. TheAgargaonarea near Parliament is home to the country offices of theUnited Nations,theWorld Bank,theAsian Development Bank,and theIslamic Development Bank.
Civic administration
History
The municipality of Dhaka was founded on 1 August 1864 and upgraded to "Metropolitan"status in 1978. In 1983, theDhaka City Corporationwas created as a self-governing entity to govern Dhaka.[137]
Under a new act in 1993, an election was held in 1994 for the first elected Mayor of Dhaka.[138]The Dhaka City Corporation ran the affairs of the city until November 2011.[139]
Municipal government
In 2011, Dhaka City Corporation was split into two separate corporations –Dhaka North City CorporationandDhaka South City Corporationto ensure better civic facilities.[140]These two corporations are headed by two mayors, who are elected by direct vote of the citizen for 5 years. The area within city corporations was divided into several wards, each having an elected commissioner. In total, the city has 130 wards and 725mohallas.
- RAJUKis responsible for coordinatingurban developmentin theGreater Dhakaarea.[141]
- DMPis responsible for maintaining law and order within the metro area. It was established in 1976. DMP has 56 police stations as administrative units.[142][143]
Administrative agencies
Unlike other megacities worldwide, Dhaka is serviced by over two dozen government organizations under different ministries. Lack of coordination among them and centralization of all powers by the Government of Bangladesh keeps the development and maintenance of the city in a chaotic situation.[144]
| Agency | Service | Parent agency |
|---|---|---|
| Dhaka North City Corporation Dhaka South City Corporation |
Public service | Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Co-operatives ∟ Local Government Division |
| Dhaka Metropolitan Police | Law enforcement | Ministry of Home Affairs ∟Bangladesh Police |
| RAJUK | Urban planning | Ministry of Housing and Public Works |
| Dhaka Electric Supply Company Limited Dhaka Power Distribution Company Limited |
Power distribution | Ministry of Power, Energy and Mineral Resources ∟ Power Division |
| Dhaka WASA | Water supply | Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Co-operatives ∟ Local Government Division |
| Dhaka Transport Coordination Authority | Transport | Ministry of Road Transport and Bridges ∟Road Transport and Highways Division |
Economy
As the most densely industrialized region of the country, the Greater Dhaka Area accounts for 35% ofBangladesh's economy.[32]TheGlobalization and World Cities Research Networkranks Dhaka as abeta− global city,in other words, one that is instrumental in linking their region into the world economy.[145]Major industrial areas areTejgaon,ShyampurandHazaribagh.[146]The city has a growing middle class, driving the market for modern consumer and luxury goods.[40][147]Shopping malls serve as vital elements in the city's economy. The city has historically attracted numerous migrant workers.[148]Hawkers,peddlers, small shops,rickshawtransport, roadside vendors and stalls employ a large segment of the population[148][149]– rickshaw drivers alone number as many as 400,000.[150]Half the workforce is employed in household and unorganised labour, while about 800,000 work in the textile industry. The unemployment rate in Dhaka was 23% in 2013.[151]
Almost all large local conglomerates have their corporate offices located in Dhaka.Microcreditalso began here and the offices of the Nobel Prize-winningGrameen Bank[152]andBRAC(the largestnon-governmental development organisationin the world) are based in Dhaka.[153]Urban developments have sparked a widespread construction boom; new high-rise buildings andskyscrapershave changed the city's landscape.[147]Growth has been especially strong in the finance, banking, manufacturing, telecommunications, and service sectors, while tourism, hotels, and restaurants continue as important elements of the Dhaka economy.[148]
Dhaka has rising traffic congestion and inadequate infrastructure; the national government has recently implemented a policy for rapid urbanization of surrounding areas and beyond by the introduction of a ten-year relief onincome taxfor new construction of facilities and buildings outside Dhaka.[154]
CBDs
The Dhaka metropolitan area boasts of severalcentral business districts(CBDs). In the southern part of the city, the riverfront ofOld Dhakais home to many small businesses, factories, and trading companies. Near Old Dhaka liesMotijheel,which is the biggest CBD in Bangladesh. The Motijheel area developed in the 1960s. Motijheel is home to theBangladesh Bank,the nation's central bank; as well as the headquarters of the largest state-owned banks, includingJanata Bank,Pubali Bank,Sonali BankandRupali Bank.By the 1990s, the affluent residential neighbourhoods ofGulshan,BananiandUttarain the northern part of the city became major business centres and now hosts many international companies operating in Bangladesh. ThePurbachal New Town Projectis planned as the city's future CBD.
The following is a list of the main CBDs in Dhaka.
- Motijheel
- Kawran Bazar
- Paltan
- Dhanmondi
- Gulshan
- Banani/DOHS
- Uttara
- Mirpur/DOHS
- Bashundhara Residential Area
- Panthapath
- Maghbazar
- Mohakhali/DOHS
- Gulistan
- Jatrabari
Industrial areas
Trade associations
Major trade associations based in the city include:
- Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce & Industries(FBCCI)
- Dhaka Chamber of Commerce & Industry(DCCI)
- Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce and Industry(MCCI)
- Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association(BGMEA)
- Bangladesh Knitwear Manufacturers and Exporters Association(BKMEA)
- Newspaper Owners' Association of Bangladesh(NOAB)
- Real Estate and Housing Association of Bangladesh(REHAB)
Stock market
TheDhaka Stock Exchange(DSE) had amarket capitalizationof BDT 5,136,979.000 million in 2021.[155]Some of the largest companies listed on the DSE include:[156]
Demographics
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
|---|---|---|
| 1951 | 335,760 | — |
| 1961 | 507,921 | +51.3% |
| 1971 | 1,373,718 | +170.5% |
| 1981 | 3,265,663 | +137.7% |
| 1991 | 6,620,697 | +102.7% |
| 2001 | 10,284,947 | +55.3% |
| 2011 | 14,730,537 | +43.2% |
| 2022 | 22,478,116 | +52.6% |
| for Dhaka Agglomeration:[157] | ||
Population
The city, in combination with localities forming the wider metropolitan area, is home to over 22 million as of 2022[update].[158]The population is growing by an estimated 3.3% per year,[158]one of the highest rates among Asian cities.[148]The continuing growth reflects ongoing migration from rural areas to the Dhaka urban region, which accounted for 60% of the city's growth in the 1960s and 1970s. More recently, the city's population has also grown with the expansion of city boundaries, a process that added more than a million people to the city in the 1980s.[148]According to theFar Eastern Economic Review,Dhaka will be home to 25 million people by the end of 2025.[159]
This rapid population growth makes it difficult for the city government to provide the necessary infrastructure in a timely manner, e.g. for water supply, electricity and waste management.[116]
Slums
About 30% of Dhaka's population lives inslums(or unplanned urban settlements), as of 2016.[116]Estimates from 2011 and 2015 found that there are about "3 to 5 thousand slums and squatter settlements scattered all over the city".[116]It is often the new arrivals, peoplemigrating from rural areas,who end up living in slums. People only have very limited access to water,sanitationand other services in those slum areas.
Slums may be found in the outskirts and in less-visible areas such as alleyways.[160]As of 2021, the largest slum is inKamrangirchar,where about 600,000 people live in slum conditions.[130]
Ethnicity
The city population is composed of people from virtually every region of Bangladesh. The long-standing inhabitants of the old city are known as Dhakaite and have a distinctive Bengali dialect and culture. Dhaka is also home to a large number of Bihari refugees, who are descendants of migrantMuslimsfrom eastern India during 1947 and settled down in East Pakistan. The correct population ofBiharisliving in the city is ambiguous, but it is estimated that there are at least 300,000 Urdu-speakers in all of Bangladesh, mostly residing in old Dhaka and in refugee camps in Dhaka, although official figures estimate only 40,000.[161][162][163]Between 15,000 and 20,000 of theRohingya,Santal,Khasi,Garo,ChakmaandManditribal peoples reside in the city.[164]
Language
Most residents of Dhaka speakBengali,the national language. Many distinctive Bengali dialects such asDhakaiya Kutti,ChittagonianandSylhetiare also spoken by segments of the population. English is spoken by a large segment of the population, especially for business purposes. The city has both Bengali and English newspapers.Urdu,includingDhakaiya Urdu,is spoken by members of several non-Bengali communities, including theBiharis.[165]
Literacy
The literacy rate in Dhaka is also increasing quickly. It was estimated at 69.2% in 2001. The literacy rate had gone up to 74.6% by 2011[14]which is significantly higher than the national average of 72%.[166]
Religion
Islamis the dominant religion of the city, with 19.3 million of the city's population being Muslim, and a majority belonging to theSunnisect. There is also a smallShiasect, and anAhmadiyacommunity.Hinduismis the second-largest religion numbering around 1.47 million adherents. Smaller segments represent 1% and practiseChristianityandBuddhism.In the city proper, over 8.5 million of the 8.9 million residents are Muslims, while 320,000 are Hindu and nearly 50,000 Christian.[168][167]
Culture
Literature
Dhaka is a major centre forBengali literature.It has been the hub ofBengali Muslimliterature for more than a century. Its heritage also includes historicUrduandPersianliterary traditions.Dark DiamondbyShazia Omarin set in Mughal-era Dhaka during the reign ofShaista Khan,the Mughal viceroy and uncle of Emperor Aurangzeb.[169]The Soldier in the AtticbyAkhteruzzaman Eliasis considered to be one of the best depictions of life inOld Dhakaand is set during Bengali uprisings in 1969.A Golden AgebyTahmima Anamis also set in Dhaka during the Bangladeshi War of Independence and includes references to theDhaka Club,theDhaka Universityand theDhanmondiarea.
Textiles
For centuries, the region around Dhaka has been the center of production for fine cotton textiles.Muslinwas abundantly produced in the region. The weavers of Dhaka were patronized by the rulers of Bengal and Delhi. They supplied textiles to the Mughal imperial court. The city of Dhaka became one of the most important centers of the cotton textile trade in the 17th century. It was literally the capital of theMuslin trade in Bengal.Merchants from around the world came to Dhaka to buy its much sought after cotton fabrics.UNESCOhas recognizedJamdanimuslin as anintangible cultural heritage.[170]According to UNESCO, "Jamdani is a vividly patterned, sheer cotton fabric, traditionally woven on a handloom by craftspeople and apprentices around Dhaka".[171]UNESCO believes "the Jamdani sari is a symbol of identity, dignity and self-recognition and provides wearers with a sense of cultural identity and social cohesion. The weavers develop an occupational identity and take great pride in their heritage; they enjoy social recognition and are highly respected for their skills".[171]
Festivals
Annual celebrations forLanguage Martyrs' Day(21 February),Independence Day(26 March), andVictory Day(16 December) are prominently celebrated across the city. Dhaka's people congregate at theShaheed Minarand theJatiyo Smriti Soudhoto remember the national heroes of the liberation war. These occasions are observed with public ceremonies and rallies on public grounds. Many schools and colleges organise fairs, festivals, and concerts in which citizens from all levels of society participate.[172] Pohela Baishakh,the Bengali New Year, falls annually on 14 April and is popularly celebrated across the city.[172]Large crowds of people gather on the streets of Shahbag, Ramna Park and the campus of the University of Dhaka for celebrations.Pahela Falgun,the first day of spring of the month Falgun in theBengali calendar,is also festively celebrated in the city.[173]This day is marked with colourful celebration and traditionally, women wear yellow saris to celebrate this day. This celebration is also known asBasanta Utsab(Spring Festival).Nabannais a harvest celebration, usually celebrated with food and dance, and music on the 1st day of the month of Agrahayan of the Bengali year. Birthdays of Rabindranath Tagore and Kazi Nazrul Islam are observed respectively asRabindra JayantiandNazrul Jayanti.TheEkushey Book Fair,which is arranged each year byBangla Academy,takes place for the whole month of February. This event is dedicated to the martyrs who died on 21 February 1952 in a demonstration calling for the establishment of Bengali as one of the state languages of formerEast Pakistan.Shakrain Festivalis an annual celebration observed with the flying of kites.[174]It is usually observed in the old part of the city at the end of Poush, the ninth month of the Bengali calendar (14 or 15 January in theGregorian calendar).
The Islamic festivals ofEid ul-Fitr,Eid ul-Adha,Eid-E-MiladunnabiandMuharram;the Hindu festival ofDurga Puja;the Buddhist festival ofBuddha Purnima;and theChristian festival of Christmaswitness widespread celebrations across the city.
Despite the growing popularity of music groups and rock bands, traditionalfolk musicremains widely popular.[175]The works of the national poetKazi Nazrul Islam,national anthem writerRabindranath Tagoreand mystic saint songwriterLalonhave a widespread following across Dhaka.[176]Bailey Road is known asnatak para(drama neighbourhood) for its two theatre halls.[177]
Cultural institutions
- Bengal Foundation
- Chhayanaut
- Institute of Fine Arts
- Nazrul Institute
- Samdani Art Foundation
- Shilpakala Academy
Annual and biennial cultural events
- Bengal Classical Music Festival
- Chobi Mela International Photography Festival
- Dhaka Art Summit
- Dhaka Lit Fest
- Dhaka World Music Festival
- Dhaka International Book Fair
- Dhaka International Trade Fair
- Ekushey Book Fair
Rickshaws
Dhaka has been called theRickshaw Capital of the World.[178][179]Once home to over a million cycle rickshaws, the number of cycle rickshaws has reduced in recent years. Cycle rickshaws also cause enormous traffic congestion for local residents. Locals have debated a potential ban on rickshaws to clear Dhaka's streets for smooth traffic.[180][181]Cycle rickshaws are a source of income for low income people who migrate to Dhaka in search of work. The cycle rickshaw is three wheeled and driven by a single person.
Rickshaws have become a symbol of the city. Rickshaws are colorfully painted with floral patterns and depictions of birds, animals, movie stars, religious text, historical events and national heroes. According to UNESCO, "Rickshaws and rickshaw painting are viewed as a key part of the city's cultural tradition and a dynamic form of urban folk art".[36]
Cuisine
Historically, Dhaka has been the culinary capital of Bengal for Muslim cuisine, particularlyMughlai cuisine.Restaurants in the city serve several types ofbiryani,including Kachi Biryani (goat meat), Tehari (beef), Murg Pulao (chicken), and Ilish Pulao (ilishfish).Khichuri riceis a popularcomfort food.A distinct variant of Bengali-Mughlai cuisine evolved in the city. Like other Mughal cities, a special tradition exists to eatniharibeef stew during breakfast. In Dhaka, the nihari stew can be eaten with Bengali breads.[182]Chefs from Dhaka, the former Mughal provincial capital, served in the kitchens of the Nawabs of Dhaka and Murshidabad. They invented theKachi Biryani,which is a variant ofbiryaniwith mutton steaks and potatoes. One of the longest surviving outlets serving authenticKachi Biryaniis Fakhruddin's.[183]Kachi Biryaniis highly popular in Bangladeshi cuisine, with food critic and formerMasterChef AustraliajudgeMatt Prestonpraising its use of potatoes.[184]Borhaniis served as a drink alongside biryani. The Nawabi cuisine of Dhaka was notable for itspatishaptadessert and theKubalipulao.Thekormarecipe of the Nawab family was included byMadhur Jaffreyin her cookbook "Madhur Jaffrey's Ultimate Curry Bible".[185]Bakarkhanibreads from Dhaka were served in the courts of Mughal rulers.[186]
Since 1939,Haji biryanihas been a leading biryani restaurant in the city. Dhaka also has a style ofMurg Pulao(chicken biryani) which usesturmericandmalai(cream of milk) together.[187]Localkebabsare widely eaten when dining out. Theseekh kebabandchicken tikkaare the most popular dishes in kebab restaurants, which are eaten with eithernaanorparatha.Liveris often eaten with breads, as a stuffing, or as a curry.Star Kababis the most popular kebab chain in the city, alongside other chains and gourmet restaurants.[188]Different kinds ofbhurta,which refers to mashed vegetables, are widely eaten. Various types of Bengali fish curry are found in the city. Along withSouth Asian cuisine,a large variety of Western andChinese cuisineis served at numerous restaurants and food courts.[147]Upmarket areas include many Thai, Japanese and Korean restaurants.[189]Italianfood is also very popular in Dhaka, especially in upmarket areas.[190]
DuringRamadan,Chowkbazaarbecomes a busy marketplace foriftaritems. Thejilapiof Dhaka are much thicker than counterparts in India and Pakistan.[191]TheShahi jilapi(king's jilapi) is one of the thickest jilapi produced. Thephuchkaandjhalmuriare popular street food. Dhaka hosts an array of Bengali dessert chains that sell a wide variety ofsweets.Samosasandshingarasare also widely eaten traditional snacks. In recent years, the number of Bangladeshi-ownedburgeroutlets has increased across the city. Notable bakeries include thePrince of Wales bakeryin Old Dhaka and theCooper'schain.
Architecture
The architectural history of Dhaka can be subdivided into the Mughal, British, and modern periods. As a result, Dhaka has landmarks ofMughal architecture,Indo-Saracenic architecture,andmodernist architecture.The oldest brick structure in the city is theBinat Bibi Mosque,which was built in 1454 in the Narinda area of Dhaka during the reign of the SultanNasiruddin Mahmud Shah(r. 1435 – 1459) of the Bengal Sultanate.[192][193]Old Dhaka is home to over 2000 buildings built between the 16th and 19th centuries, which form an integral part of Dhaka's cultural heritage. Modern Dhaka is often criticized as a concrete jungle.[194]
In the old part of the city, the fading grandeur of the Mughal era is evident in the crumbling, neglected caravanserai like Bara Katra and Choto Katra. Some structures like theNimtali archhave been restored. The old city features narrow alleyways with high-walled lanes and houses with indoor courtyards.[70]The early 20th century government quarter inRamnaincludes stately colonial buildings set amidst gardens and parks.[70]Among colonial buildings, theCurzon Hallstands out for "synthesizing imperial grandiosity with sporadic Mughal motifs".[195]
Amongst modernist buildings, the Grameenphone headquarters is described as "a paradigm setter for corporate Bangladesh".[195]The Museum of Independence and its attached national monument were inspired by the "land-water mysticism of deltaic Bengal" and the "evocative expansiveness of a Roman forum or the geographical assemblage of an Egyptianmastabasanctuary ".[195]Dhaka's Art Institute, designed byMuzharul Islam,was the pioneering building of Bengali regional modernism.[195]The vast expanse of the national parliament complex was designed byLouis Kahn.It is celebrated as Dhaka's pre-eminent civic space.[196]The national parliament complex comprises 200 acres (800,000 m2) in the heart of the city.[197]TheKamalapur railway stationwas designed by American architectRobert Boughey.[198]In the last few decades, Bangladesh's new wave of cultural architecture has been influenced by Bengali aesthetics and the environment.[199]City Centre Bangladeshis currently the tallest building in the city.
Publishing and media
In 1849, the Kattra Press became the first printing press in the city. The name alludes to thekatra,the Bengali word for caravanserai. In 1856,Dacca Newsbecame the first English-language newspaper in the city. The Dacca News Press was the first commercial printing press in the city. Books published in Dhaka stirred discourse in the social and literary circles of Bengal. The Bengal Library Catalogue records the expansion of the publishing industry during the 1860s. Between 1877 and 1895, there were 45 printing presses in Dhaka. Between 1863 and 1900, more than a hundred Islamicputhiwere published in Dhaka. Bookshops sprang up inChowkbazaar,Islampur, Mughaltuli, and Patuatuli. Albert Library was a den for leftwing activists.[200]After partition, the number of publishing houses in Dhaka rose from 27 in 1947 to 88 in 1966.[200]Prominent bookshops included Wheeler's Bookstall and Presidency Library. Banglabazaar has since become the hub of the book trade.[200]Bookworm is a famous local book shop that has been located adjacent to the Prime Minister's Office for three decades until being ordered to relocate in 2022;[201][202][203]it is now located in Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed Park.[204]
Dhaka is the centre of the national media in Bangladesh. It is home to the state-ownedBangladesh TelevisionandBangladesh Betar.In recent years, the number of privately owned television channels and radio stations has increased greatly. There are over two dozen Bengali language television channels in the private sector, including 24-hour news channels. Radio is also popular across the city. Dhaka is home to national newspapers, including Bengali newspapers likeProthom Alo,[205]Ittefaq,Inqilab,Janakantha,andJugantor;as well as English language newspapersThe Daily Star,[206]The Financial Express,The Business Standard,Dhaka Tribune,andNew Age.Broadcast media based in Dhaka includeGaan Bangla,Banglavision,DBC News,Somoy TV,Independent TVandEkattor.
Education and research
Dhaka has the largest number of schools, colleges and universities of any Bangladeshi city. The education system is divided into five levels: primary (from grades 1 to 5), junior (from grades 6 to 8), secondary (from grades 9 to 10), higher secondary (from grades 11 to 12) and tertiary.[207]The five years of primary education concludes with a Primary School Completion (PSC) Examination, the three years of junior education concludes withJunior School Certificate(JSC) Examination. Next, two years of secondary education concludes with aSecondary School Certificate(SSC) Examination. Students who pass this examination proceed to two years of higher secondary or intermediate training, which culminate in aHigher Secondary School Certificate(HSC) Examination.[207]Education is mainly offered in Bengali. However, English is also widely taught and used. Many Muslim families send their children to attend part-time courses or even to pursue full-time religious education alongside other subjects, which is imparted in Bengali and Arabic in schools, colleges andmadrasas.[207]
There are52 universitiesin Dhaka.Dhaka Collegeis the oldest institution for higher education in the city and among the earliest established in British India, founded in 1841. Since independence, Dhaka has seen the establishment of numerous public and private colleges and universities that offer undergraduate and graduate degrees as well as a variety of doctoral programs.[citation needed]TheUniversity of Dhakais the oldest public university in the country which has more than 30,000 students and 1,800 faculty staff.[208]It was established in 1921 being the first university in the region. The university has 23 research centres and 70 departments, faculties, and institutes.[209]Eminent seats of higher education includeBangladesh University of Engineering and Technology(BUET),Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University(BSMMU),Jagannath UniversityandSher-e-Bangla Agricultural University.[210]Dhaka Medical Collegeis one of the oldest and largestmedical collegesin the country.[211]Founded in 1875, the Dhaka Medical School was the first medical school in British East Bengal, which becameSir Salimullah Medical Collegein 1962.[212]Other government medical colleges areShaheed Suhrawardy Medical College,Mugda Medical CollegeandArmed Forces Medical College, Dhaka.
TwoNobel laureatesare prominently associated with the city, includingAmartya Senwho grew up in the city during the 1930s and 1940s, and attendedSt. Gregory's School;[213][214][215][216]andMuhammad Yunus,who studied atDhaka University,founded theGrameen Bankand lives in the city.[217]
Learned societies and think tanks
- Asiatic Society of Bangladesh
- Atomic Energy Centre, Dhaka
- Bangla Academy
- Bangladesh Academy of Sciences
- Bangladesh Enterprise Institute
- Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies
- Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies
- Bangladesh Institute of Law and International Affairs
- Bangladesh Institute of Peace & Security Studies
- Centre for Policy Dialogue
- Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh
- International Jute Study Group
- Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization
- Yunus Centre
Sports
Cricketandfootballare the two most popular sports in Dhaka and across the nation.[218]Teams are fielded in intra-city and national competitions by many schools, colleges and private entities. TheDhaka Metropolis cricket teamrepresents Dhaka City in theNational Cricket League,the oldest domesticfirst-class cricketcompetition in Bangladesh.[219]TheDhaka Premier Leagueis the only domesticList A crickettournament now in Bangladesh. It gained List A status in2013–14 season.[220]In domesticTwenty20cricket, Dhaka has aBangladesh Premier Leaguefranchise known asMinister Dhaka.[221]
Dhaka has the distinction of having hosted the first officialTest cricketmatch of thePakistan cricket teamin 1954 against India.[222]TheBangabandhu National Stadiumwas formerly the main venue for domestic and international cricket matches, but now exclusively hosts football matches.[222]It hosted the opening ceremony of the2011 Cricket World Cup,[223]while theSher-e-Bangla National Cricket Stadium,exclusively used for cricket, hosted 6 matches of the tournament including twoquarter-finalmatches.[224]Dhaka has also hosted theSouth Asian Gamesthree times, in1985,1993and2010.Dhaka is the first city to host the games three times. The Bangabandhu National Stadium was the main venue for all three editions.[225]Dhaka also hosted theICC Men's T20 World Cup,along with Chittagong andSylhet,in2014.[226]
In football, theDhaka DerbybetweenMohammedan SCandAbahani Limited Dhakais the biggest sports rivalry in the country. The two clubs have maintained their fierce rivalry over the years in theBangladesh Football Premier Leagueand previously in the historicDhaka League,which is the second oldest football league in South Asia, officially commencing in 1948.[227]The Bangabandhu National Stadium in Dhaka has been the home venue for thenational football teamsince 2005.[228]It has hosted theSAFF Championshipon three occasions, with the first being the2003 edition,which Bangladesh went on to win.[229]The1978 AFC Youth Championshipwas the first major international tournament hosted by the stadium.[230]
TheNational Sports Council,responsible for promoting sports activities across the nation, is based in Dhaka. Dhaka also has stadiums largely used for domestic events such as theBangladesh Army Stadium,theBir Sherestha Shaheed Shipahi Mostafa Kamal Stadium,theDhanmondi Cricket Stadium,theMaulana Bhasani Hockey Stadiumand theOuter Stadium Ground.[231]The city's colleges and universities are active in intercollegiate athletics.[232]
There are twogolf coursesin Dhaka,Army Golf ClubandKurmitola Golf Club.[233]
Infrastructure
Transport
Motorcycles comprised half of Dhaka's registered vehicles in 2023,[234]while car ownership rate is only six per cent.[235]One of the world's least motorised cities,[236]the three-wheeledcycle rickshawis the most popular and ubiquitous mode of transport, which accounted for 54 per cent of vehicle trips in 2011.[237]Dhaka is among the most congested cities in the world, and traffic was estimated to cost the local economyUS$6.5billion per year in 2020.[238]The average speed of a car travelling in the city is less than 7 kilometres per hour (4.3 mph).[239]Auto rickshawspowered bycompressed natural gas,often referred to by locals as "CNGs", are also a popular mode of transport.[240]
Road
The city is connected to other parts of the country through highway and railway links. Five of Bangladesh's eight majornational highwaysstart from the city:N1,N2,N3,N5andN8.Dhaka is also directly connected to the two longest routes of theAsian Highway Network:AH1andAH2,as well as to theAH41route. Highway links to the Indian cities ofKolkata,Agartala,GuwahatiandShillonghave been established by the BRTC and private bus companies, which also run regular international bus services to those cities from Dhaka.[241][242]
TheDhaka Elevated Expressway,the first of its kind in the country, improves connectivity between the northern part of the city and the central, southern, and south-eastern parts.[243]An extension, theDhaka–Ashulia Elevated Expressway,is expected to open in 2026.[244]
Rickshaws
Cycle rickshawsand CNGauto-rickshawsare the main modes of transport within the metro area, with more than 1.5 million rickshaws running each day:[245]the highest number in any city in the world.[246]However, only around 220 thousand rickshaws are licensed by the city government.[245]Over 15,000 legally registered CNGs serve passengers in Dhaka, with thousands more operating illegally.[247]
Ride sharing
Since 2016,UberandPathaohave dominated the ride-sharing market in Dhaka, which offer both car and motorcycle services.[248][249]Ride-sharing services have led to a decline in the use of CNG auto-rickshaws,[250]although Uber has expanded its services to include CNG auto-rickshaws in 2021.[251]
Bus
Buses carried about 1.9 million passengers per day in 2007.[252]Public buses in Dhaka are primarily operated by numerous private companies, with a minority run by the state-ownedBangladesh Road Transport Corporation(BRTC).[253]BRTCbuses are red, based initially on theRoutemasterbuses of London. There are three inter-district bus terminals in Dhaka, which are located in the city's Mohakhali, Saidabad, and Gabtoli areas. It is now planned to move three inter-district bus terminals outside the town.[254]Highway links to the Indian cities ofKolkata,Agartala,GuwahatiandShillonghave been established by the BRTC and private bus companies, which also run regular international bus services to those cities from Dhaka.[241]
Set to open in December 2024, the 20.5-kilometre (12.7 mi)Dhaka Bus Rapid Transitsystem is expected to reduce travel time from Dhaka to thesatellite townofGazipurfrom as long as four hours to just 35–40 minutes.[255]
Waterways
TheSadarghat River Porton the banks of the Buriganga River serves for the transport of goods and passengers upriver and to other ports in Bangladesh.[256]Inter-city and inter-district motor vessels and passenger ferry services are used by many people to travel riverine regions of the country from the city.Water busservices are available on the Buriganga River and Hatirjheel and Gulshan lakes, providing connectivity via two routes,Tejgaon–Gulshanand Tejgaon–Rampura.[257]
Rail
Kamalapur railway station,situated on the northeast side ofMotijheel,is the largest and busiest of the city's railway stations.[198]It was designed by American architectRobert Bougheyand was completed in 1969.[258]The state-ownedBangladesh Railwayprovides suburban and national services, with regular express train services connecting Dhaka with other major urban areas, such asChittagong,Rajshahi,Khulna,SylhetandRangpur.[259]TheMaitree Expressand theMitali Expressprovides connections from Dhaka toWest Bengalin India.[260][261]
Dhaka Metro Rail is amass rapid transitsystem serving Dhaka,Bangladesh.It is a part of the 20-year-long Strategic Transport Plan (STP) outlined by theDhaka Transport Coordination Authority (DTCA).[262]The first phase of Dhaka Metro'sMRT Line 6was inaugurated byPrime MinisterSheikh Hasinaand commenced commercial operations on 28 December 2022.[263][264]
The metro network is planned to contain six lines. Before the opening of the Dhaka Metro Rail, Dhaka was the biggest city in the world without a mass rapid transit system.[265]Unrelated to the metro, there is also a proposal to build asubway[266]and anorbital railway system.[267]
Air
Hazrat Shahjalal International Airport(formerly Zia International Airport),[268]located 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) north of Dhaka city centre, is the largest and busiest international airport in the country.[269]Although built with an annual passenger-handling capacity of 8 million,[270]it handled more than 11 million passengers in 2023.[271]The average aircraft movement per day is around 330 flights.[272]It is the hub of mostBangladeshi airlines.Domestic service flies toChittagong,Sylhet,Rajshahi,Cox's Bazar,Jessore,Barisal,andSaidpur(Rangpur), and international services fly to major cities in Asia, Europe and the Middle East.[273][274]The airport's capacity is expected to more than double to 20 million once the modernthird terminalopens fully in October 2024.[275]According to the project design, the third terminal will have 12 boarding bridges and 16 conveyor belts. The terminal will have 115 check-in counters and 128 immigration desks.[276]
Water supply and sanitation
Water management in Dhakafaces numerous challenges such asflooding,poor service quality,groundwater depletion,inadequatesanitation,polluted river water,unplanned urban development, and the existence of largeslums.[277]
TheDhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority(Dhaka WASA) is "responsible for providing drinking water, sewerage, and stormwater drainage services to the city".[116]The work of Dhaka WASA is funded by theMinistry of Local Government, Rural Development, and Cooperatives.
The sewage system is inadequate, with 70 per cent of the two millioncubic metresofwastewaterproduced daily being discharged into rivers, according to wastewater management experts.[278]Due to improper maintenance and the age of the system, the majority of theseweragenetwork is out of operation and can carry less than three per cent of domesticsludge.[279][280]Most buildings handle their own sewage by constructingsoak pitsorseptic tanks,often connected tostorm drains.Consequently, 80 per cent offaecal sludgeends up in rivers, according to experts.[278]
Dhaka is served by twosewage treatment plants.[281]The Pagla Sewerage Treatment Plant (PSTP) inNarayanganj Districthas a capacity of 120megalitresper day[116]but can only utilise one-third of its capacity,[278]handling just 10 per cent of the city's waste.[280]The Dasherkandi Sewage Treatment Plant, opened in 2023, is South Asia's largest, with a capacity to treat 500 megalitres, or 20–25% of the city's 2,000 megalitres of sewage generated daily.[282]However, it is also hampered by a lack of sewage connections.[280]Dhaka WASA plans to build four other modern sewage treatment plants to handle 100 per cent of Dhaka's sewage by 2030.[282]
87% of the city's growing water demand is sourced fromgroundwater(as of 2021). This is because the extreme contamination of rivers and lakes makes surface water treatment economically and technologically unfeasible.[130]While around 20% of the daily demand of 2.4 billion litres of water is met with surface water from fivetreatment plants,[283]the groundwater table is falling at a rate of two to three metres per year.[277][283]
The Bangladesh Urban Informal Settlements Survey 2016 included a representative sample of 588 households across small, medium and largeslumsin Dhaka. It showed that 68% of the households accessedpiped waterthrough a shared connection within the slum compound. The poorest households shared a waterpoint with 43 other households on average compared to 23 sharers among the richest households. In terms ofsanitation,only 8% of the slum households had access to aflush toiletconnected to aseptic tank,while 78% used improvedpit latrinesand the remaining 10% depended on hanging latrines.[130]
Twin towns – sister cities
See also
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- Sharuf Uddin Ahmed, ed. (1991).Dhaka -past present future.The Asiatic Society, Dhaka.ISBN984-512-335-X.
- Karim, Abdul (1992).History of Bengal, Mughal Period (I).Rajshahi: Institute of Bangladesh Studies, University of Rajshahi.
- Pryer, Jane (2003).Poverty and Vulnerability in Dhaka Slums: The Urban Livelihood Study.Ashgate Publishing.ISBN0-7546-1864-1.OCLC123337526.
- Rabbani, Golam (1997).Dhaka, from Mughal outpost to metropolis.University Press, Dhaka.ISBN984-05-1374-5.
- Sarkar, Sir Jadunath (1948).History of Bengal (II).Dhaka: The University of Dhaka.
- Taifoor, S.M. (1956).Glimpses of Old Dacca.Dhaka: Pioneer Printing Press.
External links
