Wikipedia

Discrimination

(Redirected fromDiscriminatory)
This article is about prejudicial treatment. For the ability to distinguish one thing from another, seeDiscrimination (information).
Not to be confused withdiscriminant."Bigot" redirects here. For other uses, seeBigot (disambiguation).

Discriminationis the process of making unfair or prejudicialdistinctionsbetween people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong,[1]such asrace,gender,age,species,religion,physical attractivenessorsexual orientation.[2]Discrimination typically leads to groups being unfairly treated on the basis of perceived statuses based on ethnic, racial, gender or religious categories.[2][3]It involves depriving members of one group of opportunities or privileges that are available to members of another group.[4]

An African-American man drinking from aracially segregatedwater cooler marked "Colored", inOklahoma Cityc. 1939

Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices and laws exist in many countries andinstitutionsin all parts of the world, including some, where such discrimination is generally decried. In some places, countervailing measures such as quotas have been used to redress the balance in favor of those who are believed to be current or past victims of discrimination. These attempts have often been met with controversy, and sometimes been calledreverse discrimination.

Etymology

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The termdiscriminateappeared in the early 17th century in the English language. It is from theLatindiscriminat-'distinguished between', from the verbdiscriminare,fromdiscrimen'distinction', from the verbdiscernere(corresponding to "to discern" ).[5]Since theAmerican Civil Warthe term "discrimination" generally evolved inAmerican Englishusage as an understanding of prejudicial treatment of an individual based solely on their race, later generalized as membership in a certain socially undesirablegroupor social category.[6] Before this sense of the word became almost universal, it was a synonym for discernment, tact and culture as in "taste and discrimination", generally a laudable attribute; to "discriminate against" being commonly disparaged.[7][8][page needed]

Definitions

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Moral philosophers[who?]have defined[when?]discrimination using amoralizeddefinition. Under this approach, discrimination is defined as acts, practices, or policies that wrongfully impose a relative disadvantage or deprivation on persons based on their membership in a salient social group.[9]This is a comparative definition. An individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against. He or she just needs to be treatedworsethan others for some arbitrary reason. If someone decides to donate to help orphan children, but decides to donate less, say, to children of a particular race out of a racist attitude, he or she will be acting in a discriminatory way even if he or she actually benefits the people he discriminates against by donating some money to them.[10]Discrimination also develops into a source ofoppression,the action of recognizing someone as 'different' so much that they are treated inhumanly and degraded.[11]

This moralized definition of discrimination is distinct from a non-moralized definition - in the former, discrimination is wrong by definition, whereas in the latter, this is not the case.[12]

TheUnited Nationsstance on discrimination includes the statement: "Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection."[13]TheUnited Nations Human Rights Counciland other international bodies work towards helping ending discrimination around the world.

Types

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Age

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Main articles:AgeismandAdultism

Ageismor age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on the grounds of someone's age.[14]It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values which used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a person's age.[15]Ageism is most often directed toward elderly people, or adolescents and children.[16][17]

Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. Joanna Lahey, professor at TheBush School of Government and Public ServiceatTexas A&M,found that firms are more than 40% more likely to interview a young adult job applicant than an older job applicant.[18]In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers atGhent University,measured comparable ratios in Belgium. They found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years. In Belgium, they are only discriminated if they have more years of inactivity or irrelevant employment.[19]

In a survey for theUniversity of Kent,England, 29% of respondents stated that they had suffered from age discrimination. This is a higher proportion than forgenderorracialdiscrimination.Dominic Abrams,social psychology professor at the university, concluded that ageism is the most pervasive form ofprejudiceexperienced in the UK population.[20]

Caste

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See also:Caste

According toUNICEFandHuman Rights Watch,castediscrimination affects an estimated 250 million people worldwide and is mainly prevalent in parts of Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Japan) and Africa.[21][22]As of 2011,there were 200 millionDalitsorScheduled Castes(formerly known as "untouchables" ) in India.[23]

Disability

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Main article:Disability discrimination

Discrimination against people withdisabilitiesin favor of people who are not is calledableismordisablism.Disability discrimination, which treats non-disabled individuals as the standard of 'normal living', results in public and private places and services, educational settings, and social services that are built to serve 'standard' people, thereby excluding those with various disabilities. Studies have shown that disabled people not only need employment in order to be provided with the opportunity to earn a living but they also need employment in order to sustain their mental health and well-being. Work fulfils a number of basic needs for an individual such as collective purpose, social contact, status, and activity.[24]A person with a disability is often found to be socially isolated and work is one way to reduce his or her isolation. In the United States, theAmericans with Disabilities Actmandates the provision of equality of access to both buildings and services and is paralleled by similar acts in other countries, such as theEquality Act 2010in the UK.

Excellence

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These paragraphs are an excerpt fromDiscrimination of excellence.[edit]
Discrimination of excellence[25]is the violation of formalequality of opportunity[26]andmeritocracy,[27]which reward merits of individuals andoverachievement.[25]Discrimination of excellence due to violation of formalequality of opportunitycan be caused by different reasons, includinglegacy preferences,[28]nepotism,substantive equality,[26]affirmative action[29]or randomluck.[30]

Language

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Nationalists inCorsicasometimes spray-paint or shoot traffic signs inFrench.
This section is an excerpt fromLinguistic discrimination.[edit]

Linguistic discrimination(also called glottophobia, linguicism and languagism) is unfair treatment of people based upontheir use of languageand the characteristics of their speech, such as theirfirst language,theiraccent,the perceived size of theirvocabulary(whether or not the speaker uses complex and varied words), theirmodality,and theirsyntax.[31]For example, anOccitan speakerin France will probably be treated differently from aFrench speaker.[32]Based on a difference in use of language, a person may automatically form judgments about another person'swealth,education,social status,character or other traits, which may lead to discrimination. This has led topublic debatesurroundinglocalisation theories,likewise with overalldiversity prevalencein numerous nations acrossthe West.

Linguistic discrimination was at first considered an act of racism. In the mid-1980s,linguistTove Skutnabb-Kangascaptured the idea of language-based discrimination as linguicism, which was defined as "ideologies and structures which are used to legitimize, effectuate, and reproduce unequal divisions of power and resources (both material and non-material) between groups which are defined on the basis of language".[33]Although different names have been given to this form of discrimination, they all hold the same definition. Linguistic discrimination is culturally and socially determined due to preference for one use of language over others.

Scholars have analyzed the role oflinguistic imperialismin linguicism, with some asserting that speakers of dominant languages gravitate towards discrimination against speakers of other, less dominant languages, while disadvantaging themselves linguistically by remaining monolingual.[34]According to scholar Carolyn McKinley, this phenomenon is most present inAfrica,where the majority of the population speaksEuropean languagesintroduced during thecolonial era;African states are also noted as instituting European languages as the main medium of instruction, instead ofindigenous languages.[34]UNESCOreports have noted that this has historically benefitted only the Africanupper class,conversely disadvantaging the majority of Africa's population who hold varying level of fluency in the European languages spoken across the continent.[34]Scholars have also noted impact of the linguistic dominance of English onacademic discipline;scholar Anna Wierzbicka has described disciplines such associal scienceandhumanitiesbeing "locked in a conceptual framework grounded in English" which prevents academia as a whole from reaching a "more universal, culture-independent perspective".[35]

Name

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Discrimination based on a person's name may also occur, with researchers suggesting that this form of discrimination is present based on a name's meaning, its pronunciation, its uniqueness, its gender affiliation, and its racial affiliation.[36][37][38][39][40]Research has further shown that real world recruiters spend an average of just six seconds reviewing each résumé before making their initial "fit/no fit" screen-out decision and that a person's name is one of the six things they focus on most.[41]France has made it illegal to view a person's name on a résumé when screening for the initial list of most qualified candidates. Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands have also experimented with name-blind summary processes.[42]Some apparent discrimination may be explained by other factors such as name frequency.[43]The effects of name discrimination based on a name's fluency is subtle, small and subject to significantly changing norms.[44]

Nationality

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Further information:Discrimination based on nationality

The Anti-discrimination laws of most countries allow and make exceptions for discrimination based on nationality and immigration status.[45]TheInternational Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination(CERD) does not prohibit discrimination by nationality, citizenship or naturalization but forbids discrimination "against any particular nationality".[46]

Discrimination on the basis ofnationalityis usually included inemployment laws[47](see abovesection for employment discriminationspecifically). It is sometimes referred to as bound together with racial discrimination[48]although it can be separate. It may vary from laws that stop refusals of hiring based on nationality, asking questions regarding origin, to prohibitions of firing, forced retirement, compensation and pay, etc., based on nationality.

Discrimination on the basis of nationality may show as a "level of acceptance" in a sport or work team regarding new team members and employees who differ from the nationality of the majority of team members.[49]

In theGCCstates, in the workplace, preferential treatment is given to full citizens, even though many of them lack experience or motivation to do the job. State benefits are also generally available for citizens only.[50]Westerners might also get paid more than other expatriates.[51]

Race or ethnicity

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Main articles:Racism,Racial discrimination,Discrimination based on skin color,Ethnic penalty,andRacial segregation
Anti-Arabsign inPattaya Beach,Thailand
German warning inGerman-occupied Poland1939 – "No entrance for Poles!"
Antisemiticgraffiti inLithuania.The words readJuden raus(German forJews out) andHasse(presumably a misspelling ofHass,German forhate).
AnAfrican-Americanchild at a segregated drinking fountain on a courthouse lawn,North Carolina,US 1938

Racial and ethnic discrimination differentiates individuals on the basis of real and perceived racial and ethnic differences and leads to various forms of theethnic penalty.[52][53]It can also refer to the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to physical appearance and can be divided based on thesuperiorityof oneraceover another.[54][55][56][57]It may also meanprejudice,discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of a different race orethnicity.[55][56]Modern variants ofracismare often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These views can take the form ofsocial actions,practices or beliefs, orpolitical systemsin which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities.[55][56][58]It has been official government policy in several countries, such asSouth Africaduring theapartheidera. Discriminatory policies towards ethnic minorities include the race-based discrimination against ethnicIndiansand Chinese in Malaysia[59]After theVietnam War,manyVietnamese refugeesmoved to Australia and the United States, where they faced discrimination.[60]

Region

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See also:Regional discrimination in China

Regional or geographic discrimination is a form of discrimination that is based on the region in which a person lives or the region in which a person was born. It differs from national discrimination because it may not be based on national borders or the country in which the victim lives, instead, it is based on prejudices against a specific region of one or more countries. Examples include discrimination against Chinese people who were born in regions of the countryside that are far away from cities that are located within China, and discrimination againstAmericanswho are from thesouthernornorthernregions of the United States. It is often accompanied by discrimination that is based on accent, dialect, or cultural differences.[61]

Religious beliefs

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Main articles:Religious discriminationandReligious exclusivism
In the 1990s, Bhutanexpelled its Hindu population or forced it to leave the countryin order to preserveBhutan's Buddhist culture and identity.

Religious discrimination is valuing or treating people or groups differently because of what they do or do not believe in or because of their feelings towards a givenreligion.For instance, the Jewish population of Germany, and indeed a large portion of Europe, was subjected to discrimination underAdolf Hitlerand his Nazi party between 1933 and 1945. They were forced to live in ghettos, wear an identifying star of David on their clothes, and sent to concentration and death camps in rural Germany and Poland, where they were to be tortured and killed, all because of their Jewish religion. Many laws (most prominently the Nuremberg Laws of 1935) separated those of Jewish faith as supposedly inferior to the Christian population.

Restrictions on the types of occupations thatJewishpeople could hold were imposed by Christian authorities. Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to religious Jews, pushing them into marginal roles that were considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting andmoneylending,occupations that were only tolerated as a "necessary evil".[62]The number of Jews who were permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated inghettosand banned from owning land. In Saudi Arabia, non-Muslimsare not allowed to publicly practice their religions and they cannot enterMeccaandMedina.[63][64]Furthermore, private non-Muslim religious gatherings might be raided by thereligious police.[64]In Maldives, non-Muslims living and visiting the country are prohibited from openly expressing their religious beliefs, holding public congregations to conduct religious activities, or involving Maldivians in such activities. Those expressing religious beliefs other than Islam may face imprisonment of up to five years or house arrest, fines ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 rufiyaa ($320 to $1,300), and deportation.[65]

In a 1979 consultation on the issue, the United States commission on civil rights defined religious discrimination in relation to thecivil rightswhich are guaranteed by theFourteenth Amendment.Whereas religious civil liberties, such as the right to hold or not to hold a religious belief, are essential forFreedom of Religion(in the United States as secured by theFirst Amendment), religious discrimination occurs when someone is denied "equal protection under the law, equality of status under the law, equal treatment in the administration of justice, and equality of opportunity and access to employment, education, housing, public services and facilities, and public accommodation because of their exercise of their right to religious freedom".[66]

Sex, sex characteristics, gender, and gender identity

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Main article:Sexism
See also:Homophobia,Misogyny,Misandry,Discrimination against intersex people,Transphobia,Discrimination against non-binary gender persons,andViolence against LGBT people

Sexismis a form of discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. It has been linked tostereotypesandgender roles,[67][68]and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another.[69]Extreme sexism may fostersexual harassment,rape,and other forms ofsexual violence.[70]Gender discrimination may encompass sexism and is discrimination toward people based on theirgender identity[71]or their gender or sex differences.[72]Gender discrimination is especially defined in terms ofworkplace inequality.[72]It may arise from social or cultural customs and norms.[73]

Intersexpersons experiencediscriminationdue to innate, atypicalsex characteristics.Multiple jurisdictions now protect individuals on grounds ofintersex statusorsex characteristics.South Africa was the first country to explicitly add intersex to legislation, as part of the attribute of 'sex'.[74]Australia was the first country to add an independent attribute, of 'intersex status'.[75][76]Malta was the first to adopt a broader framework of 'sex characteristics', through legislation that also ended modifications to the sex characteristics of minors undertaken for social and cultural reasons.[77][78]Global efforts such as the United NationsSustainable Development Goal 5is also aimed at ending all forms of discrimination on the basis of gender and sex.[79]

Sexual orientation

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LGBT activists atCologne Pridecarrying a banner with the flags of over 70 countries wherehomosexuality is illegal
Protests inNew York CityagainstUganda's Anti-Homosexuality Bill
See also:Heterosexism,Heteronormativity,Biphobia,andHomophobia

One'ssexual orientationis a "predilection for homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality".[80]Like most minority groups, homosexuals and bisexuals are vulnerable to prejudice and discrimination from the majority group. They may experience hatred from others because of their sexuality; a term for such hatred based upon one's sexual orientation is often calledhomophobia.Many continue to hold negative feelings towards those with non-heterosexual orientations and will discriminate against people who have them or are thought to have them. People of other uncommon sexual orientations also experience discrimination. One study found its sample of heterosexuals to be more prejudiced againstasexual peoplethan against homosexual or bisexual people.[81]

Employment discriminationbased on sexual orientation varies by country. Revealing a lesbian sexual orientation (by means of mentioning an engagement in a rainbow organisation or by mentioning one's partner name) lowers employment opportunities inCyprusand Greece but overall, it has no negative effect in Sweden and Belgium.[82][83][84][85]In the latter country, even a positive effect of revealing a lesbian sexual orientation is found for women at their fertile ages.

Besides these academic studies, in 2009,ILGApublished a report based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College inStockholm, Sweden.This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to considerhomosexualityillegal, five carry thedeath penaltyfor homosexual activity, and two do in some regions of the country.[86]In the report, this is described as "State sponsored homophobia".[87]This happens inIslamicstates, or in two cases regions under Islamic authority.[88][89]On February 5, 2005, theIRINissued a reported titled "Iraq: Male homosexuality still a taboo". The article stated, among other things thathonor killingsby Iraqis against a gay family member are common and given some legal protection.[90]In August 2009, Human Rights Watch published an extensive report detailing torture of men accused of beinggay in Iraq,including the blocking of men's anuses with glue and then giving the men laxatives.[91]Although gay marriage has been legal inSouth Africasince 2006, same-sex unions are often condemned as "un-African".[92]Research conducted in 2009 shows 86% of black lesbians from theWestern Capelive in fear of sexual assault.[93]

Further information:LGBT rights by country or territory
TheNYC Pride Marchis theworld's largest LGBT event.Regional variation exists with respect totolerance,theantithesisof discrimination, in different parts of the world.

A number of countries, especially those in theWestern world,have passed measures to alleviate discrimination against sexual minorities, including laws against anti-gayhate crimesand workplace discrimination. Some have also legalized same-sex marriage or civil unions in order to grant same-sex couples the same protections and benefits as opposite-sex couples. In 2011, theUnited Nationspassed its first resolution recognizing LGBT rights.

Reverse discrimination

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Main article:Reverse discrimination
See also:Bumiputera (Malaysia)
Students protesting againstracial quotasin Brazil: "Quer uma vaga? Passe no vestibular!"(" Do you want a spot? Pass the entrance exam! ")

Reverse discriminationis discrimination against members of a dominant or majority group, in favor of members of a minority or historically disadvantaged group.[94]

This discrimination may seek to redresssocial inequalitiesunder which minority groups have had less access to privileges enjoyed by the majority group. In such cases it is intended to remove discrimination that minority groups may already face. Reverse discrimination can be defined as the unequal treatment of members of the majority groups resulting from preferential policies, as in college admissions or employment, intended to remedy earlier discrimination against minorities.[95]

Conceptualizingaffirmative actionas reverse discrimination became popular in the early- to mid-1970s, a time period that focused on under-representation and action policies intended to remedy the effects of past discrimination in both government and the business world.[96]

Anti-discrimination legislation

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Main article:List of anti-discrimination acts

Australia

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Canada

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Hong Kong

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India

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Article 15 of the Constitution of Indiaprohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, religion, sex, race or place of birth etc.[98]Similarly, theConstitution of Indiaguarantees several rights to all citizens irrespective of gender, such asright to equalityunder Article 14, right to life and personal liberty under Article 21.[99]

Indian Penal Code,1860 (Section 153 A) - Criminalises the use of language that promotes discrimination or violence against people on the basis of race, caste, sex, place of birth, religion, gender identity, sexual orientation or any other category.[100]

Israel

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Netherlands

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  • Article 137c, part 1 ofWetboek van Strafrechtprohibits insults towards a group because of its race, religion, sexual orientation (straight or gay), handicap (somatically, mental or psychiatric) in public or by speech, by writing or by a picture. Maximum imprisonment one year of imprisonment or a fine of the third category.[101][102]
  • Part 2 increases the maximum imprisonment to two years and the maximum fine category to 4,[103]when the crime is committed as a habit or is committed by two or more persons.
  • Article 137d prohibits provoking to discrimination or hate against the group described above. Same penalties apply as in article 137c.[104]
  • Article 137e part 1 prohibits publishing a discriminatory statement, other than in formal message, or hands over an object (that contains discriminatory information) otherwise than on his request. Maximum imprisonment is 6 months or a fine of the third category.[101][105]
  • Part 2 increases the maximum imprisonment to one year and the maximum fine category to 4,[103]when the crime is committed as a habit or committed by two or more persons.
  • Article 137f prohibits supporting discriminatory activities by giving money or goods. Maximum imprisonment is 3 months or a fine of the second category.[106][107]

United Kingdom

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United States

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United Nations documents

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Important UN documents addressing discrimination include:

International cooperation

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  • Global Forum against Racism and Discrimination[116]
  • The International Coalition of Inclusive and Sustainable Cities (ICCAR) launched by UNESCO in 2004[117]
  • Routes of Enslaved Peoplesproject

Theories and philosophy

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Social theoriessuch asegalitarianismassert thatsocial equalityshould prevail. In some societies, including most developed countries, each individual's civil rights include the right to be free from government sponsored social discrimination.[118]Due to a belief in the capacity to perceive pain or suffering shared by all animals,abolitionistorveganegalitarianism maintains that the interests of every individual (regardless of their species), warrantequal considerationwith the interests of humans, and that not doing so isspeciesist.[119]

Philosophers have debated as to how inclusive the definition of discrimination should be. Some philosophers have argued that discrimination should only refer to wrongful or disadvantageous treatment in the context of a socially salient group (such as race, gender, sexuality etc.) within a given context. Under this view, failure to limit the concept of discrimination would lead to it being overinclusive; for example, since most murders occur because of some perceived difference between the perpetrator and the victim, many murders would constitute discrimination if the social salience requirement is not included. Thus this view argues that making the definition of discrimination overinclusive renders it meaningless. Conversely, other philosophers argue that discrimination should simply refer to wrongful disadvantageous treatment regardless of the social salience of the group, arguing that limiting the concept only to socially salient groups is arbitrary, as well as raising issues of determining which groups would count as socially salient. The issue of which groups should count has caused many political and social debates.[12]

Based on realistic-conflict theory[120]and social-identity theory,[121]Rubin and Hewstone[122]have highlighted a distinction among three types of discrimination:

  1. Realistic competitionis driven by self-interest and is aimed at obtaining material resources (e.g., food, territory, customers) for the in-group (e.g., favoring an in-group in order to obtain more resources for its members, including the self).
  2. Social competitionis driven by the need for self-esteem and is aimed at achieving a positive social status for the in-group relative to comparable out-groups (e.g., favoring an in-group in order to make it better than an out-group).
  3. Consensual discriminationis driven by the need for accuracy[123]and reflects stable and legitimate intergroup status hierarchies (e.g., favoring a high-status in-group because it is high status).

Labeling theory

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An anti-discrimination education workshop at theAuschwitz Jewish Center,Poland, 2019

Discrimination, inlabeling theory,takes form as mental categorization of minorities and the use ofstereotype.This theory describes difference as deviance from the norm, which results in internal devaluation andsocial stigma[124]that may be seen as discrimination. It is started by describing a "natural" social order. It is distinguished between the fundamental principle of fascism and social democracy.[125][clarification needed]TheNazisin 1930s-era Germany and the pre-1990Apartheidgovernment of South Africa used racially discriminatory agendas for their political ends. This practice continues with some present day governments.[126]

Game theory

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EconomistYanis Varoufakis(2013) argues that "discrimination based on utterly arbitrary characteristics evolves quickly and systematically in the experimental laboratory", and that neither classicalgame theorynorneoclassical economicscan explain this.[127]

In 2002, Varoufakis and Shaun Hargreaves-Heap ran an experiment where volunteers played a computer-mediated, multiroundhawk-dove game.At the start of each session, each participant was assigned a color at random, either red or blue. At each round, each player learned the color assigned to his or her opponent, but nothing else about the opponent. Hargreaves-Heap and Varoufakis found that the players' behavior within a session frequently developed a discriminatory convention, giving aNash equilibriumwhere players of one color (the "advantaged" color)consistentlyplayed the aggressive "hawk" strategy against players of the other, "disadvantaged" color, who played the acquiescent "dove" strategy against the advantaged color. Players of both colors used amixed strategywhen playing against players assigned the same color as their own. The experimenters then added acooperationoption to the game, and found that disadvantaged players usually cooperated with each other, while advantaged players usually did not. They state that while the equilibria reached in the original hawk-dove game are predicted byevolutionary game theory,game theory does not explain the emergence of cooperation in the disadvantaged group. Citing earlier psychological work ofMatthew Rabin,they hypothesize that a norm of differing entitlements emerges across the two groups, and that this norm could define a "fairness" equilibrium within the disadvantaged group.[128]

Effects on health

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This section is an excerpt fromPsychological impact of discrimination on health.[edit]

Thepsychological impact of discrimination on healthrefers to the cognitive pathways through which discrimination impacts mental and physical health in members ofmarginalized,subordinate, and low-status groups (e.g. racial and sexual minorities). Research on the relation between discrimination and health became a topic of interest in the 1990s, when researchers proposed that persisting racial/ethnic disparities in health outcomes could potentially be explained by racial/ethnic differences in experiences with discrimination.[129]Although the bulk of the research tend to focus on the interactions betweeninterpersonaldiscrimination and health, researchers studying discrimination and health in the United States have proposed thatinstitutional discriminationandcultural racismalso give rise to conditions that contribute to persisting racial and economic health disparities.[130][131]

A stress and coping framework[132]is often applied to investigate how discrimination influences health outcomes in racial, gender, and sexual minorities, as well as on immigrants and indigenous populations.[133][134]Findings indicate that experiences of discrimination tend to translate into worse physical and mental health and lead to increased participation in unhealthy behaviors.[135]Evidence of the inverse link between discrimination and health has been consistent across multiple population groups and various cultural and national contexts.[136]

See also

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References

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  1. ^"What drives discrimination and how do we stop it?".www.amnesty.org.Amnesty International.RetrievedOctober 13,2020.Discrimination occurs when a person is unable to enjoy his or her human rights or other legal rights on an equal basis with others because of an unjustified distinction made in policy, law or treatment.
  2. ^ab"Discrimination: What it is, and how to cope".American Psychological Association.October 31, 2019.RetrievedOctober 13,2020.Discrimination is the unfair or prejudicial treatment of people and groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, age or sexual orientation.
  3. ^"discrimination, definition".Cambridge Dictionaries Online.Cambridge University.RetrievedMarch 29,2013.
  4. ^Introduction to sociology. 7th ed. New York:W. W. Norton & CompanyInc, 2009. p. 334.
  5. ^"Definition of discrimination; Origin".Oxford Dictionaries.Oxford University. Archived fromthe originalon May 14, 2013.RetrievedJanuary 14,2013.
  6. ^Introduction to sociology(Print) (7th ed.). New York:W. W. Norton & CompanyInc. 2009. p. 324.
  7. ^Simpson, J.A., ed. (1989).The Oxford Dictionary.Vol. IV (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press. p. 758.ISBN0-19861216-8.
  8. ^Richard Tardif, ed. (1985).The Macquarie Concise Thesaurus — Australia's National Thesaurus.The Macquarie Library.ISBN0-94975797-7.
  9. ^Altman, Andrew (2020),"Discrimination",in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(Summer 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University,retrievedOctober 13,2020,[A]s a reasonable first approximation, we can say that discrimination consists of acts, practices, or policies that impose a relative disadvantage on persons based on their membership in a salient social group. [...] [W]e can refine the first-approximation account of discrimination and say that the moralized concept of discrimination is properly applied to acts, practices or policies that meet two conditions: a) they wrongfully impose a relative disadvantage or deprivation on persons based on their membership in some salient social group, and b) the wrongfulness rests (in part) on the fact that the imposition of the disadvantage is on account of the group membership of the victims.
  10. ^Kasper Lippert-Rasmussen, "Private Discrimination: A Prioritarian, Desert-Accommodating Account",San Diego Law Review,43, 817-856 (2006); Oscar Horta, "Discrimination in Terms of Moral Exclusion",Theoria: Swedish Journal of Philosophy,76, 346-364 (2010).
  11. ^Thompson, Neil (2016).Anti-Discriminatory Practice: Equality, Diversity and Social Justice.Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-1-137-58666-7.[permanent dead link‍]
  12. ^abAltman, Andrew (2020),"Discrimination",in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(Summer 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University,retrievedDecember 29,2020
  13. ^"United Nations CyberSchoolBus: What is discrimination?".Archived fromthe originalon June 1, 2014.
  14. ^"Definition of Ageism".Oxford Dictionaries.Oxford University Press. Archived fromthe originalon May 14, 2013.RetrievedDecember 4,2012.
  15. ^Kirkpatrick, George R.; Katsiaficas, George N.; Kirkpatrick, Robert George; Mary Lou Emery (1987).Introduction to critical sociology.Ardent Media. p. 261.ISBN978-0-8290-1595-9.RetrievedJanuary 28,2011.
  16. ^Wilkinson J and Ferraro K, "Thirty Years of Ageism Research". In Nelson T (ed).Ageism: Stereotyping and Prejudice Against Older Persons.Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2002
  17. ^"Young and Oppressed".youthrights.org. Retrieved April 11, 2012.ArchivedJuly 28, 2011, at theWayback Machine
  18. ^Lahey, J. (2005)Do Older Workers Face Discrimination?Boston College.ArchivedApril 14, 2012, at theWayback Machine
  19. ^Baert, S., Norga, J., Thuy, Y., Van Hecke, M. (In press)Getting Grey Hairs in the Labour Market: An Alternative Experiment on Age DiscriminationJournal of Economic Psychology.
  20. ^(2006)How Ageist is Britain?London: Age Concern.ArchivedOctober 27, 2005, at theWayback Machine
  21. ^"Discrimination".UNICEF.Archived fromthe originalon June 8, 2011.
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