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Utopian and dystopian fiction

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Utopian and dystopian fictionaresubgenresofscience fictionthat explore social and political structures. Utopian fiction portrays a setting that agrees with the author'sethos,having various attributes of another reality intended to appeal to readers. Dystopian fiction offers the opposite: the portrayal of a setting that completely disagrees with the author's ethos.[1][full citation needed]Some novels combine both genres, often as a metaphor for the different directions humanity can take depending on its choices, ending up with one of two possible futures. Bothutopiasanddystopiasare commonly found inscience fictionand other types of speculative fiction.

More than 400 utopian works in the English language were published prior to the year 1900, with more than a thousand others appearing during the 20th century.[2]This increase is partially associated with the rise in popularity ofscience fictionandyoung adult fictionmore generally, but also larger scale social change that brought awareness of largersocietalorglobal issues,such as technology, climate change, and growing human population. Some of these trends have created distinct subgenres such as ecotopian fiction,climate fiction,young adult dystopian novels, and feminist dystopian novels.

Subgenres

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Utopian fiction

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Further information:Utopia
See also:List of utopian literatureandCategory:Utopian fiction

The wordutopiawas first used in direct context byThomas Morein his 1516 workUtopia.The word utopiaresembles both the Greek wordsoutopos( "no place" ), andeutopos( "good place" ). More's book, written inLatin,sets out a vision of an idealsociety.As the title suggests, the work presents an ambiguous and ironic projection of the ideal state.[3]The whimsical nature of the text can be confirmed by the narrator ofUtopia's second book, Raphael Hythloday. The Greek root of the name "Hythloday" suggests an 'expert in nonsense'.

An earlier example of a Utopian work fromclassical antiquityisPlato'sThe Republic,in which he outlines what he sees as the ideal society and itspolitical system.Later,Tommaso Campanellawas influenced by Plato's work and wroteThe City of the Sun(1623), which describes a modern utopian society built on equality.[4]Other examples includeSamuel Johnson'sThe History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia(1759) andSamuel Butler'sErewhon(1872), which uses ananagramof "nowhere" as its title.[2][5]This, like much of utopian literature, can be seen assatire;Butler inverts illness and crime, with punishment for the former and treatment for the latter.[5]

One example of the utopian genre's meaning and purpose is described inFredric Jameson'sArcheologies of the Future(2005),which addresses many utopian varieties defined by their program or impulse.[6]

Dystopian fiction

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Further information:Dystopia
See also:List of dystopian literature,List of dystopian comics,andList of dystopian films

Adystopiais a society characterized by a focus on that which is contrary to the author'sethos,such as mass poverty, public mistrust and suspicion, apolice stateor oppression.[1]Most authors of dystopian fiction explore at least one reason why things are that way, often as an analogy for similar issues in the real world. Dystopian literature serves to "provide fresh perspectives on problematic social and political practices that might otherwise be taken for granted or considered natural and inevitable".[7] Some dystopias claim to beutopias.Samuel Butler'sErewhoncan be seen as a dystopia because of the way sick people are punished as criminals while thieves are "cured" in hospitals, which the inhabitants of Erewhon see as natural and right, i.e., utopian (as mocked inVoltaire'sCandide).

Dystopias usually extrapolate elements of contemporary society, and thus can be read as political warnings.

Eschatologicalliterature may portray dystopias.[8]

Examples

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The 1921 novelWebyYevgeny Zamyatinportrays a post-apocalyptic future in which society is entirely based on logic and modeled after mechanical systems.[9]George Orwellwas influenced byWewhen he wroteNineteen Eighty-Four(published in 1949), a novel aboutOceania,a state at perpetual war, its population controlled throughpropaganda.[10]Big Brotherand the dailyTwo Minutes Hateset the tone for an all-pervasive self-censorship.Aldous Huxley's 1932 novelBrave New Worldstarted as a parody of utopian fiction, and projected into the year 2540 industrial and social changes he perceived in 1931, leading to industrial success by a coercively persuaded population divided into five castes.[9]Karin Boye's 1940 novelKallocainis set in a totalitarian world state where a drug is used to control the individual's thoughts.[11]

Anthony Burgess' 1962 novelA Clockwork Orangeis set in a future England that has a subculture of extreme youth violence, and details the protagonist's experiences with the state intent on changing his character at their whim.[9]Margaret Atwood'sThe Handmaid's Tale(1985) describes a future United States governed by a totalitariantheocracy,where women have no rights,[9][need quotation to verify]andStephen King'sThe Long Walk(1979) describes a similar totalitarian scenario, but depicting the participation of teenage boys in a deadly contest. Examples ofyoung-adultdystopian fiction include (notably all published after 2000)The Hunger Gamesseries bySuzanne Collins,theDivergentseries byVeronica Roth,The Power of Fiveseries byAnthony Horowitz,The Maze Runnerseries byJames Dashner,and theUgliesseries byScott Westerfeld.[12] Video gamesoften include dystopias as well; notable examples include theFalloutseries,BioShock,and the later games of theHalf-Lifeseries.

History of dystopian fiction

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The history of dystopian literature can be traced back to the reaction to theFrench Revolutionof 1789 and the prospect that mob rule would producedictatorship.Until the late 20th century, it was usually anti-collectivist. Dystopian fiction emerged as a response to the utopian. Its early history is traced in Gregory Claeys'Dystopia: A Natural History(Oxford University Press, 2017).

The beginning of technological dystopian fiction can be traced back toE. M. Forster's (1879–1970) "The Machine Stops."[13][14]M Keith Booker states that "The Machine Stops,"WeandBrave New Worldare "the great defining texts of the genre of dystopian fiction, both in [the] vividness of their engagement with real-world social and political issues and in the scope of their critique of the societies on which they focus."[15]

Another important figure in dystopian literature isH.G. Wells,whose workThe Time Machine(1895) is also widely seen as a prototype of dystopian literature.[2][9]Wells' work draws on the social structure of the 19th century, providing a critique of the British class structure at the time.[16]PostWorld War II,even more dystopian fiction was produced. These works of fiction were interwoven with political commentary: the end of World War II brought about fears of an impendingThird World Warand a consequent apocalypse.[citation needed]

Modern dystopian fiction draws not only on topics such as totalitarian governments and anarchism, but also pollution, global warming, climate change, health, the economy and technology. Modern dystopian themes are common in the young adult (YA) genre of literature.[17][18]

Combinations

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Many works combine elements of both utopias and dystopias. Typically, an observer from our world will journey to another place or time and see one society the author considers ideal and another representing the worst possible outcome. Usually, the point is that our choices may lead to a better or worse potential future world.Ursula K. Le Guin'sAlways Coming Homefulfills this model, as doesMarge Piercy'sWoman on the Edge of Time.InStarhawk'sThe Fifth Sacred Thingthere is no time-travelling observer. However, her ideal society is invaded by a neighbouring power embodying evil repression. InAldous Huxley'sIsland,in many ways a counterpoint to his better-knownBrave New World,the fusion of the best parts ofBuddhist philosophyand Western technology is threatened by the "invasion" of oil companies. As another example, in the "Unwanteds" series by Lisa McMann, a paradox occurs where the outcasts from a complete dystopia are treated to absolute utopia. They believe that those who were privileged in said dystopia were the unlucky ones.

In another literary model, the imagined society journeys between elements of utopia and dystopia over the course of the novel or film. At the beginning ofThe GiverbyLois Lowry,the world is described as a utopia. However, as the book progresses, the world's dystopian aspects are revealed.

Jonathan Swift'sGulliver's Travelsis also sometimes linked with both utopian and dystopian literatures, because it shares the general preoccupation with ideas of good and bad societies. Of the countriesLemuel Gullivervisits,Brobdingnagand Country of theHouyhnhnmsapproach a utopia; the others have significant dystopian aspects.[19]

Ecotopian fiction

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See also:Climate fiction
See also:Solarpunk

Inecotopian fiction,the author posits either a utopian or dystopian world revolving around environmental conservation or destruction. Danny Bloom coined the term "cli-fi" in 2006, with a Twitter boost fromMargaret Atwoodin 2011, to coverclimate change-related fiction,[20]but the theme has existed for decades. Novels dealing withoverpopulation,such asHarry Harrison'sMake Room! Make Room!(made into movieSoylent Green), were popular in the 1970s, reflecting the widespread concern with the effects of overpopulation on the environment. The novelNature's EndbyWhitley StrieberandJames Kunetka(1986) posits a future in which overpopulation, pollution, climate change, and resulting superstorms, have led to a popular mass-suicide political movement. Some other examples of ecological dystopias are depictions of Earth in the filmsWall-EandAvatar.

While eco-dystopias are more common, a small number of works depicting what might be called eco-utopia, or eco-utopian trends, have also been influential. These includeErnest Callenbach'sEcotopia,an important 20th century example of this genre.Kim Stanley Robinsonhas written several books dealing with environmental themes, including theMars trilogy.Most notably, however, hisThree Californias Trilogycontrasted an eco-dystopia with an eco-utopia and a sort of middling-future. Robinson has also edited an anthology of short ecotopian fiction, calledFuture Primitive: The New Ecotopias.Another impactful piece of Robinson's isNew York 2140which focuses on the aftermath of society after a major flooding event, and can be seen through both a utopian and dystopian lens.

There are a few dystopias that have an "anti-ecological" theme. These are often characterized by a government that is overprotective of nature or a society that has lost most modern technology and struggles for survival. A fine example of this is the novelRiddley Walker.

Feminist utopias

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See also:Utopia § Feminism

Another subgenre isfeminist utopiasand the overlapping category offeminist science fiction.According to the authorSally Miller Gearhart,"A feminist utopian novel is one whicha.contrasts the present with an envisioned idealized society (separated from the present by time or space),b.offers a comprehensive critique of present values/conditions,c.sees men ormale institutionsas a major cause of present social ills,d.presents women as not only at least the equals of men but also asthe sole arbiters of their reproductive functions."[21][22]

Utopias have explored the ramification of gender being either a societal construct or a hard-wired imperative.[23]InMary Gentle'sGolden Witchbreed,gender is not chosen until maturity, and gender has no bearing on social roles. In contrast,Doris Lessing'sThe Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five(1980) suggests that men's and women's values are inherent to the sexes and cannot be changed, making a compromise between them essential. InMy Own Utopia(1961) byElisabeth Mann Borgese,gender exists but is dependent upon age rather than sex — genderless children mature into women, some of whom eventually become men.[23]Marge Piercy's novelWoman on the Edge of Timekeeps human biology, but removes pregnancy and childbirth from the gender equation by resorting toassisted reproductive technologywhile allowing both women and men the nurturing experience ofbreastfeeding.

Utopicsingle-gender worldsor single-sex societies have long been one of the primary ways to explore implications of gender and gender-differences.[24]One solution togender oppressionorsocial issuesin feminist utopian fiction is to remove men, either showing isolated all-female societies as inCharlotte Perkins Gilman'sHerland,or societies where men have died out or been replaced, as inJoanna Russ'sA Few Things I Know About Whileaway,where "the poisonous binary gender" has died off. In speculative fiction, female-only worlds have been imagined to come about by the action of disease that wipes out men, along with the development of a technological or mystical method that allows femaleparthenogenetic reproduction.The resulting society is often shown to be utopian by feminist writers. Many influential feminist utopias of this sort were written in the 1970s;[24][25][26]the most often studied examples include Joanna Russ'sThe Female ManandSuzy McKee Charnas'sThe Holdfast Chronicles.[26]Such worlds have been portrayed most often by lesbian or feminist authors; their use of female-only worlds allows the exploration of female independence and freedom frompatriarchy.The societies may not necessarily be lesbian, or sexual at all —Herland(1915) by Charlotte Perkins Gilman is a famous early example of a sexless society.[25]Charlene Ball writes inWomen's Studies Encyclopediathat use of speculative fiction to explore gender roles has been more common in the United States than in Europe and elsewhere.[23]

Utopias imagined by male authors have generally included equality between sexes rather than separation.[27]

Cultural impact

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Étienne Cabet's workTravels in Icariacaused a group of followers, theIcarians,to leave France in 1848, and travel to the United States to start a series of utopian settlements in Texas, Illinois, Iowa, California, and elsewhere. These groups lived in communal settings and lasted until 1898.[28]

Among the first decades of the 20th century in Russia, utopian science fiction literature popularity rose extremely due to the fact that the citizens wanted to fantasize about the future instead of just the fact that it was a new, up and coming genre of literature.[29]During theCold War,however, utopian science fiction became exceptionally prominent among Soviet leaders. Many citizens of the Soviet Russia became dependent on this type of literature because it represented an escape from the real world which was not ideal at the time. Utopian science fiction allowed them to fantasize about how satisfactory it would be to live in a "perfect" world.[citation needed]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ab"Apocalyptic Literature". Bloomsbury Publishing Ltd. 1993.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
  2. ^abc Sargent, Lyman Tower (November 1976)."Themes in Utopian Fiction in English Before Wells".Science Fiction Studies.3(3): 275–82, see p. 275–6.
  3. ^Curtright, Travis, ed. (10 September 2015).Thomas More: why patron of statesmen?.Lanham: Lexington Books. p. 174.ISBN978-1-4985-2227-4.OCLC920466356.Mantel's Cromwell, despite his keen appreciation of literature and love of Petrarch, completely misses the ironic and ambiguous structure ofUtopia.
  4. ^Campanella, Tommaso (1623).The City of the Sun.The Floating Press. pp. 1–39.ISBN978-1-775410-51-5.
  5. ^abClaeys, Gregory; Sargent, Lyman Tower, eds. (1999).The utopia reader.New York: New York University Press. pp.229.ISBN0-585-42482-9.OCLC70728991.
  6. ^Jameson, Fredric (2005).Archaeologies of the Future.New York: Verso. pp. 1–9.ISBN1-84467-033-3.
  7. ^Booker, Keith M. (1994).The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature.Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 19.ISBN9780313290923.
  8. ^ Sinclair, George R. (8 July 2020). "World Without End?".Look Around: A Christian Faith for the Twenty-First Century.Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers (published 2020). p. 153.ISBN9781725266681.Retrieved15 August2021.Dystopian escapism sells. [...] Appealing to dark instincts, gnawing insecurities, and socio-political disturbance, dystopian eschatology appeals to fear.
  9. ^abcde"100 Great Works of Dystopian Fiction".Vulture.2017-08-03.Retrieved2020-06-03.
  10. ^Taylor, D. J. (2019-05-22)."The Ministry of Truth by Dorian Lynskey review – what inspired Orwell's masterpiece?".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved2020-06-03.
  11. ^Davidson, BengtFramtidsromanen KallocainKarin Boye-sällskapet (in Swedish)
  12. ^ Garcia, Antero (2013).Critical foundations in young adult literature: challenging genres.Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. p. 71.ISBN978-94-6209-398-0.OCLC863698575.
  13. ^Zimmermann, Ana Cristina; Morgan, W. John (2019-03-01)."E. M. Forster's 'The Machine Stops': humans, technology and dialogue".AI & Society.34(1): 37–45.doi:10.1007/s00146-017-0698-3.ISSN1435-5655.S2CID25560513.
  14. ^Caporaletti, Silvana. "Science as Nightmare:The Machine Stopsby E. M. Forster. "Utopian studies8.2 (1997): 32-47.
  15. ^Booker, M Keith (1994).The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism.Greenwood Press.
  16. ^Marcus, Laura."The Time Machine".Britannica.Retrieved11 December2021.
  17. ^Young, Moira (2011-10-22)."Why is dystopia so appealing to young adults?".The Guardian.ISSN0261-3077.Retrieved2020-06-03.
  18. ^Ames, Melissa (2013)."Engaging" Apolitical "Adolescents: Analyzing the Popularity and Educational Potential of Dystopian Literature Post-9/11".The High School Journal.97(1): 3–20.doi:10.1353/hsj.2013.0023.JSTOR43281204.S2CID145131295.
  19. ^Houston, Chlöe (2007)."Utopia, Dystopia or Anti-utopia? Gulliver's Travels and the Utopian Mode of Discourse".Utopian Studies.18(3): 425–442.doi:10.5325/utopianstudies.18.3.0425.ISSN1045-991X.JSTOR20719885.S2CID190000042.
  20. ^"Margaret Atwood - Twitter
  21. ^Gearhart, Sally Miller (1984)."Future Visions: Today's Politics: Feminist Utopias in Review".In Baruch, Elaine Hoffman; Rohrlich, Ruby (eds.).Women in Search of Utopia: Mavericks and Mythmakers.New York: Shoken Books. pp.296.ISBN0805239006.
  22. ^Napikoski, Linda."A Look at Feminist Utopia and Dystopia Literature".ThoughtCo.Retrieved2019-01-16.
  23. ^abcTierney, Helen (1999).Women's studies encyclopedia.Greenwood Publishing Group. p.1442.ISBN978-0-313-31073-7.
  24. ^abAttebery, Brian (2002).Decoding gender in science fiction.New York: Routledge.ISBN978-1-317-97147-4.OCLC868068199.
  25. ^abGaétan Brulotte& John Phillips,Encyclopedia of Erotic Literature,"Science Fiction and Fantasy", p.1189, CRC Press, 2006,ISBN1-57958-441-1
  26. ^abMartha A. Bartter,The Utopian Fantastic,"Momutes",Robin Anne Reid,p. Het 101ISBN0-313-31635-X
  27. ^Martha A. Bartter,The Utopian Fantastic,"Momutes", Robin Anne Reid, p. 102[ISBN missing]
  28. ^"Travels In Icaria Utopianism And Communitarianism Paperback"(PDF).tyboomakbook.org.Retrieved2018-11-15.
  29. ^Refail, Nudelman (1989)."Soviet Science Fiction and the Ideology of Soviet Society".Science Fiction Studies.16:38–66.JSTOR4239917.

Bibliography

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  • Applebaum, Robert.Literature and Utopian Politics in Seventeenth-Century England.Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2002.
  • Bartkowski, Frances.Feminist Utopias.Lincoln, NE, University of Nebraska Press, 1991.
  • Booker, M. Keith.The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature.Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1994.
  • Booker, M. Keith.Dystopian Literature: A Theory and Research Guide.Westport, CT, Greenwood Press, 1994.
  • Claeys, Gregory.Dystopia: A Natural History.Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017.
  • Ferns, Chris.Narrating Utopia: Ideology, Gender, Form in Utopian Literature.Liverpool, Liverpool University Press, 1999.
  • Gerber, Richard.Utopian Fantasy.London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1955.
  • Gottlieb, Erika.Dystopian Fiction East and West: Universe of Terror and Trial.Montreal, McGill-Queen's Press, 2001.
  • Haschak, Paul G.Utopian/Dystopian Literature.Metuchen, NJ, Scarecrow Press, 1994.
  • Jameson, Fredric.Archaeologies of the future: the Desire Called Utopia and Other Science Fictions.London, Verso, 2005.
  • Kessler, Carol Farley.Daring to Dream: Utopian Fiction by United States Women Before 1950.Syracuse, NY, Syracuse University Press, 1995.
  • Mohr, Dunja M.Worlds Apart: Dualism and Transgression in Contemporary Female Dystopias.Jefferson, NC, McFarland, 2005.
  • Tod, Ian, and Michael Wheeler.Utopia.London, Orbis, 1978.
  • Sargent, Lyman Tower (November 1976)."Themes in Utopian Fiction in English Before Wells".Science Fiction Studies.3(3): 275–82.
  • Szweykowski, Zygmunt.Twórczość Bolesława Prusa[The Art of Bolesław Prus], 2nd ed., Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1972.
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