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Earth system science

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Earth system science(ESS) is the application ofsystems scienceto theEarth.[1][2][3][4]In particular, it considers interactions and 'feedbacks', through material and energy fluxes, between the Earth's sub-systems' cycles, processes and "spheres" —atmosphere,hydrosphere,cryosphere,[5]geosphere,pedosphere,lithosphere,biosphere,[6]and even themagnetosphere[7]—as well as the impact of human societies on these components.[8]At its broadest scale, Earth system science brings together researchers across both thenaturalandsocialsciences, from fields includingecology,economics,geography,geology,glaciology,meteorology,oceanography,climatology,paleontology,sociology,andspace science.[9]Like the broader subject ofsystems science,Earth system science assumes aholistic viewof the dynamic interaction between the Earth'sspheresand their many constituent subsystems fluxes and processes, the resultingspatial organizationand time evolution of these systems, and their variability, stability and instability.[10][11][12]Subsets of Earth System science includesystems geology[13][14]andsystems ecology,[15]and many aspects of Earth System science are fundamental to the subjects ofphysical geography[16][17]andclimate science.[18]

An ecological analysis ofCO
2in anecosystem.Assystems biology,systems ecologyseeks aholisticview of the interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems.

Definition

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TheScience Education Resource Center,Carleton College,offers the following description: "Earth System science embraces chemistry, physics, biology, mathematics and applied sciences in transcending disciplinary boundaries to treat the Earth as an integrated system. It seeks a deeper understanding of the physical, chemical, biological and human interactions that determine the past, current and future states of the Earth. Earth System science provides a physical basis for understanding the world in which we live and upon which humankind seeks to achieve sustainability".[19]

Earth System science has articulated four overarching, definitive and critically important features of the Earth System, which include:

  1. Variability: Many of the Earth System's natural 'modes' and variabilities across space and time are beyond human experience, because of the stability of the recent Holocene. Much Earth System science therefore relies on studies of the Earth's past behaviour and models to anticipate future behaviour in response to pressures.
  2. Life: Biological processes play a much stronger role in the functioning and responses of the Earth System than previously thought. It appears to be integral to every part of the Earth System.
  3. Connectivity: Processes are connected in ways and across depths and lateral distances that were previously unknown and inconceivable.
  4. Non-linear: The behaviour of the Earth System is typified by strong non-linearities. This means that abrupt change can result when relatively small changes in a 'forcing function' push the System across a 'threshold'.

History

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For millennia, humans have speculated how the physical and living elements on the surface of the Earth combine, with gods and goddesses frequently posited to embody specific elements. The notion that the Earth, itself, is alive was a regular theme of Greek philosophy and religion.[20]

Early scientific interpretations of the Earth system began in the field ofgeology,initially in the Middle East[21]and China,[22]and largely focused on aspects such as theage of the Earthand the large-scale processes involved inmountainandoceanformation. Asgeology developed as a science,understanding of the interplay of different facets of the Earth system increased, leading to the inclusion of factors such as theEarth's interior,planetary geology,living systemsandEarth-like worlds.

In many respects, the foundational concepts of Earth System science can be seen in the natural philosophy 19th century geographerAlexander von Humboldt.[23]In the 20th century,Vladimir Vernadsky(1863–1945) saw the functioning of thebiosphereas a geological force generating a dynamic disequilibrium, which in turn promoted the diversity of life.

In parallel, the field ofsystems sciencewas developing across numerous other scientific fields, driven in part by the increasing availability andpowerofcomputers,and leading to the development ofclimate modelsthat began to allow the detailed and interactingsimulationsof the Earth'sweatherandclimate.[24]Subsequent extension of these models has led to the development of "Earth system models" (ESMs) that include facets such as the cryosphere and the biosphere.[25]

In 1983 aNASAcommittee called the Earth System Science Committee was formed. The earliest reports of NASA's ESSC,Earth System Science: Overview(1986), and the book-lengthEarth System Science: A Closer View(1988), constitute a major landmark in the formal development of Earth system science.[26]Early works discussing Earth system science, like these NASA reports, generally emphasized the increasing human impacts on the Earth system as a primary driver for the need of greater integration among the life and geo-sciences, making the origins of Earth system science parallel to the beginnings ofglobal changestudies and programs.

Climate science

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Climatology and climate change have been central to Earth System science since its inception, as evidenced by the prominent place given to climate change in the early NASA reports discussed above. The Earth'sclimate systemis a prime example of an emergent property of the whole planetary system, that is, one which cannot be fully understood without regarding it as a single integrated entity. It is also a system where human impacts have been growing rapidly in recent decades, lending immense importance to the successful development and advancement of Earth System science research. As just one example of the centrality ofclimatologyto the field, leading American climatologistMichael E. Mannis the Director of one of the earliest centers for Earth System science research, the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University, and its mission statement reads, "the Earth System Science Center (ESSC) maintains a mission to describe, model, and understand the Earth's climate system".[27]

This section is an excerpt fromClimate system.[edit]
The five components of the climate system all interact. They are theatmosphere,thehydrosphere,thecryosphere,thelithosphereand thebiosphere.[28]: 1451 

Earth'sclimate systemis acomplex systemwith five interacting components: theatmosphere(air), thehydrosphere(water), thecryosphere(ice and permafrost), thelithosphere(earth's upper rocky layer) and thebiosphere(living things).[28]: 1451 Climateis the statistical characterization of the climate system.[28]: 1450 It represents the averageweather,typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes, such asocean currentsand wind patterns.[29][30]Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans transports heat from thetropical regionsto regions that receive less energy from the Sun.Solar radiationis the main driving force for this circulation. Thewater cyclealso moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, certain chemical elements are constantly moving between the components of the climate system. Two examples for thesebiochemical cyclesare thecarbonandnitrogen cycles.

The climate system can change due tointernal variabilityandexternal forcings.These external forcings can be natural, such asvariations in solar intensityand volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation ofgreenhouse gasesin the atmosphere, mainly being emitted by people burningfossil fuels,is causingclimate change.Human activity also releases coolingaerosols,but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases.[28]: 1451 Changes can be amplified byfeedback processesin the different climate system components.

Education

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Earth System science can be studied at a postgraduate level at some universities. In general education, theAmerican Geophysical Union,in cooperation with theKeck Geology Consortiumand with support from five divisions within theNational Science Foundation,convened a workshop in 1996, "to define common educational goals among all disciplines in the Earth sciences". In its report, participants noted that, "The fields that make up the Earth and space sciences are currently undergoing a major advancement that promotes understanding the Earth as a number of interrelated systems". Recognizing the rise of thissystems approach,the workshop report recommended that an Earth System science curriculum be developed with support from the National Science Foundation.[31]

In 2000, the Earth System Science Education Alliance (ESSEA) was begun, and currently includes the participation of 40+ institutions, with over 3,000 teachers having completed an ESSEA course as of fall 2009 ".[32]

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The concept ofearth system law(still in its infancy as per 2021) is a sub-discipline ofearth system governance,itself a subfield of earth system sciences analyzed from a social sciences perspective.[33]

See also

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References

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  1. ^Stanley, Steven M. (2005).Earth System History.Macmillan.ISBN9780716739074.
  2. ^Jacobson, Michael; et al. (2000).Earth System Science, From Biogeochemical Cycles to Global Changes(2nd ed.). London: Elsevier Academic Press.ISBN978-0123793706.Retrieved7 September2015.
  3. ^Kump, Lee; et al. (2004).The Earth System(2nd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.ISBN978-0-13-142059-5.
  4. ^Christiansen, E.H.; Hamblin, W.K. (2014).Dynamic Earth.Jones & Bartlett Learning.ISBN9781449659028.
  5. ^Harris, Charles; Murton, Julian B. (2005).Cryospheric Systems: Glaciers and Permafrost.Geological Society of London.ISBN9781862391758.
  6. ^Cockell, Charles (28 February 2008).An Introduction to the Earth-Life System.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521493918.
  7. ^Ohtani, Shin-ichi; Fujii, Ryoichi; Hesse, Michael; Lysak, Robert L. (2000).Magnetospheric Current Systems.American Geophysical Union.ISBN9780875909769.
  8. ^Ehlers, Eckart; Moss, C.; Krafft, Thomas (2006).Earth System Science in the Anthropocene: Emerging Issues and Problems.Springer Science+Business Media.ISBN9783540265900.
  9. ^Butz, Stephen D. (2004).Science of Earth Systems.Thomson Learning.ISBN978-0766833913.
  10. ^Hergarten, Stefan (2002).Self-Organized Criticality in Earth Systems.Springer-Verlag.ISBN9783540434528.
  11. ^Tsonis, Anastasios A.; Elsner, James B. (2007).Nonlinear Dynamics in Geosciences.Springer Science+Business Media.ISBN9780387349183.
  12. ^Neugebauer, Horst J.; Simmer, Clemens (2003).Dynamics of Multiscale Earth Systems.Springer.ISBN9783540417965.
  13. ^Merritts, Dorothy; De Wet, Andrew; Menking, Kirsten (1998).Environmental Geology: An Earth System Science Approach.W. H. Freeman.ISBN9780716728344.
  14. ^Martin, Ronald (2011).Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth.Jones & Bartlett Learning.ISBN9780763780012.
  15. ^Wilkinson, David M. (2006).Fundamental Processes in Ecology: An Earth Systems Approach.Oxford University Press.ISBN9780198568469.
  16. ^Pidwirny, Michael; Jones, Scott (1999–2015)."Physical Geography".
  17. ^Marsh, William M.; Kaufman, Martin M. (2013).Physical Geography: Great Systems and Global Environments.Cambridege University Press.ISBN9780521764285.
  18. ^Cornell, Sarah E.; Prentice, I. Colin; House, Joanna I.; Downy, Catherine J. (2012).Understanding the Earth System: Global Change Science for Application.Cambridge University Press.ISBN9781139560542.
  19. ^"Earth System Science in a Nutshell".Carleton College.Retrieved10 March2009.
  20. ^Tickell, Crispin (2006)."Earth Systems Science: Are We Pushing Gaia Too Hard?".46th Annual Bennett Lecture - University of Leicester.London: University of Leicester.Retrieved21 September2015.
  21. ^Fielding H. Garrison,An introduction to the history of medicine,W.B. Saunders, 1921.
  22. ^Asimov, M. S.; Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (eds.).The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century: The Achievements.History of civilizations of Central Asia. pp. 211–214.ISBN978-92-3-102719-2.
  23. ^Jackson, Stephen T. (2009)."Alexander von Humboldt and the General Physics of the Earth"(PDF).Science.324(5927): 596–597.doi:10.1126/science.1171659.PMID19407186.S2CID206518912.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 12 April 2019.Retrieved11 November2015.
  24. ^Edwards, P.N. (2010)."History of climate modelling"(PDF).Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change.2:128–139.doi:10.1002/wcc.95.hdl:2027.42/79438.S2CID38650354.
  25. ^Washington, W.M.; Buja, L.; Craig, A. (2009)."The computational future for climate and Earth system models: on the path to petaflop and beyond".Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A.367(1890): 833–846.Bibcode:2009RSPTA.367..833W.doi:10.1098/rsta.2008.0219.PMID19087933.
  26. ^Mooney, Harold; et al. (26 February 2013)."Evolution of natural and social science interactions in global change research programs".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.110(Supplement 1, 3665–3672): 3665–3672.Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.3665M.doi:10.1073/pnas.1107484110.PMC3586612.PMID23297237.
  27. ^Mann, Michael."Earth System Science Center".Penn State University.Retrieved25 July2015.
  28. ^abcdIPCC, 2013:Annex III: Glossary[Planton, S. (ed.)]. In:Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change[Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
  29. ^"Climate systems".climatechange.environment.nsw.gov.au.Archivedfrom the original on 6 May 2019.Retrieved6 May2019.
  30. ^"Earth's climate system".World Ocean Review.Retrieved13 October2019.
  31. ^"Shaping the Future of Undergraduate Earth Science Education".American Geophysical Union. Archived fromthe originalon 16 September 2008.Retrieved12 May2009.
  32. ^"Earth System Science Education Alliance".Archived fromthe originalon 22 September 2017.Retrieved25 July2015.
  33. ^Petersmann, Marie-Catherine (2021)."Sympoietic thinking and Earth System Law: The Earth, its subjects and the law".Earth System Governance.9:100114.doi:10.1016/j.esg.2021.100114.Text was copied from this source, which is available under aCreative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
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