Wikipedia

Edible mushroom

"Mushroom (food)" redirects here. For other uses, seeMushroom.

Edible mushroomsare thefleshyfruit bodiesof several species ofmacrofungi(fungithat bear fruiting structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye). Edibility may be defined by criteria including the absence ofpoisonouseffects on humans and desirabletasteandaroma.Mushrooms that have a particularly desirable taste are described as "choice".Edible mushrooms are consumed for theirnutritionalandculinaryvalue. Mushrooms, especially driedshiitake,are sources ofumamiflavor.

White mushroomsandenoki mushroomsare some of the most common edible mushrooms, commonly sold in stores.

To ensure safety, wild mushrooms must be correctlyidentifiedbefore their edibility can be assumed. Deadlypoisonous mushroomsthat are frequently confused with edible mushrooms include several species of the genusAmanita,particularlyA. phalloides,the death cap. Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can causeallergic reactionsin others; old or improperly stored specimens can go rancid and causefood poisoning.[1]Additionally, mushrooms can absorb chemicals within polluted locations,accumulatingpollutants andheavy metalsincludingarsenicandiron—sometimes in lethal concentrations.

Several varieties of fungi containpsychedeliccompounds—themagic mushrooms—while variously resembling non-psychoactivespecies. The most commonly consumed forrecreational useareAmanita muscaria(the fly agaric) andPsilocybe cubensis,with the former containing alkaloids such asmuscimoland the latter predominatelypsilocybin.

Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are eitherharvested wildorcultivated.Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available inmarkets;those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the prizedtruffle,matsutake,andmorel) may be collected on a smaller scale and are sometimes available atfarmers' marketsor other local grocers. Despite long-term use infolk medicine,there is noscientific evidencethat consuming "medicinal mushrooms"cures or lowers the risk of human diseases.

Description

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Assorted wild edible mushrooms

Mushrooms can appear either below ground (hypogeous) or above ground (epigeous) and can be picked by hand.[2]Edibility may be defined by criteria including the absence ofpoisonouseffects on humans and desirabletasteandaroma.[3]Edible mushrooms are consumed for theirnutritionalandculinaryvalue. Mushrooms, especially driedshiitake,are sources ofumamiflavor.[4][5]

List of edible mushrooms

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Commercially cultivated

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  • Agaricus bisporusdominates the edible mushroom market in North America and Europe, in several forms. It is an edible basidiomycete mushroom native to grasslands in Europe and North America. As it ages, this mushroom turns from small, white and smooth to large and light brown. In its youngest form, it is known as the 'common mushroom', 'button mushroom', 'cultivated mushroom', and 'champignon mushroom'. Its fully mature form is known as 'portobello'. Its semi-mature form is known variously as 'cremini', 'baby-bella', 'Swiss brown' mushroom, 'Roman brown' mushroom, 'Italian brown' mushroom, or 'chestnut' mushroom.[6][7][8][9]
  • Pleurotusspecies, the oyster mushrooms, are commonly grown at industrial scale.[9]
  • Morchellaspecies, (morel family) morels belong to the ascomycete grouping of fungi. Morels are difficult to grow commercially, but there are ongoing efforts to make cultivating morels at scale a reality.[10]Since 2014, some farmers in China have been cultivating morels outdoors in the spring; however, yields are variable.[10]Morels must be cooked before eating.
  • Lentinula edodes,the Shiitake mushroom[9]
  • Auricularia heimuer,wood ear mushroom
  • Volvariella volvacea,the paddy straw mushroom or straw mushroom
  • Volvariella bombycina
  • Flammulina filiformis,the enoki mushroom, golden needle mushroom, seafood mushroom, lily mushroom, or winter mushroom
  • Flammulina velutipes
  • Tremella fuciformis,the snow fungus, snow ear, silver ear fungus and white jelly mushroom
  • Hypsizygus tessellatus,aka Hypsizygus marmoreus, the beech mushroom, also known in its white and brown varieties as Bunapi-shimeji and Buna-shimeji, respectively
  • Stropharia rugosoannulata,the wine cap mushroom, burgundy mushroom, garden giant mushroom or king stropharia
  • Cyclocybe aegerita,the pioppino, velvet pioppini, poplar or black poplar mushroom
  • Hericium erinaceus,the lion's mane, monkey head, bearded tooth, satyr's beard, bearded hedgehog, or pom pom mushroom.
  • Phallus indusiatus,the bamboo mushrooms, bamboo pith, long net stinkhorn, crinoline stinkhorn or veiled lady mushroom.

Commercially harvested wild fungi

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Commercially cultivated Japanese edible mushroom species (clockwise from left):enokitake,buna-shimeji, bunapi-shimeji,king oyster mushroomandshiitake
  • Boletus edulisor edible Boletus, native to Europe, known in Italian asfungo porcino(pluralporcini) (pig mushroom), in German asSteinpilz(stone mushroom), in Russian asБелый гриб,Bely grib(white mushroom), in French as thecèpe,and in the UK as the penny bun. It is also known as the king bolete, and is renowned for its delicious flavor. It is sought after worldwide, and can be found in a variety of culinary dishes.
  • Boletus griseus
  • Boletus variipes
  • Boletus pinophilus
  • Calbovista subsculpta,commonly known as the sculptured giant puffball is a commonpuffballof theRocky MountainsandPacific Coastranges of western North America. The puffball is more or less round with a diameter of up to 15 cm (6 in), white becoming brownish in age, and covered with shallow pyramid-shaped plates or scales. It fruits singly or in groups along roads and in open woods at high elevations, from summer to autumn. It is considered a choice edible species while its interior flesh (thegleba) is still firm and white. As the puffball matures, its insides become dark brown and powdery from mature spores.
  • Calvatia gigantea,the giant puffball. Giant puffballs are considered a choice edible species and are commonly found in meadows, fields, and deciduous forests usually in late summer and autumn. It is found in temperate areas throughout the world.[11]They can reach diameters up to 150 cm (60 in) and weights of 20 kg (45 lb). The inside of mature giant puffballs is greenish brown, whereas the interior of immature puffballs is white. The large white mushrooms are edible when young.[12][13]
  • Cantharellus cibarius(the chanterelle). The yellow chanterelle is one of the best and most easily recognizable mushrooms and can be found in Asia, Europe, North America and Australia. There are poisonous mushrooms that resemble it, though these can be confidently distinguished if one is familiar with the chanterelle's identifying features.
  • Craterellus tubaeformis,the tube chanterelle, yellow foot chanterelle or yellow-leg
  • Clitocybe nuda,blewit (or blewitt)
  • Cortinarius caperatus,the Gypsy mushroom
  • Craterellus cornucopioides,Trompette de la mort(trumpet of death) or horn of plenty
  • Grifola frondosa,known in Japan asmaitake(also "hen of the woods" or "sheep's head" ), a large, hearty mushroom commonly found on or near stumps and bases of oak trees, and believed to haveMacrolepiota proceraproperties.
  • Hericium erinaceus,atooth fungus;also called "lion's mane mushroom"
  • Hydnum repandum,sweet tooth fungus, hedgehog mushroom or hedgehog fungus, urchin of the woods
  • Lactarius deliciosus,saffron milk cap, consumed around the world and prized in Russia
  • Morchellagenus (morel family) morels belong to the ascomycete grouping of fungi. They are usually found in open scrub, woodland or open ground in late spring. When collecting this fungus, care must be taken to distinguish it from the poisonousfalse morels,includingGyromitra esculenta.The morel must be cooked before eating.
  • Pleurotusspecies are sometimes commercially harvested despite the ease of cultivation.
  • Pleurotus ostreatus
  • Termitomycesspecies are symbiotes oftermitesand the mushrooms grow out of termite mounds. This genus includes the largest edible mushroom,Termitomyces titanicus,with a cap that averages 1 m in diameter,[15]though most species are much smaller. Research is underway to determine how to cultivate these mushrooms.[16]
  • Tricholoma matsutake,thematsutake,a mushroom highly prized inJapanese cuisine.
  • Tubergenus (truffles). Truffles have long eluded the modern techniques of domestication known astrufficulture.Although the field of trufficulture has greatly expanded since its inception in 1808, several species still remain uncultivated. Domesticated truffles include:

Other edible wild species

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Conditionally edible species

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A. muscaria,a conditionally-edible species

Cultivation

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Mushroom cultivationhas a long history, with overtwenty speciescommercially cultivated. Mushrooms are cultivated in at least 60 countries.[23]A fraction of the many fungi consumed by humans are currently cultivated and sold commercially. Commercial cultivation is important ecologically, as there have been concerns of the depletion of larger fungi such aschanterellesin Europe, possibly because the group has grown popular, yet remains a challenge to cultivate.

Some mushrooms, particularlymycorrhizalspecies, have not yet been successfully cultivated.

In 2019, world production of commercial mushrooms and recordedtrufflecollection reported to theFood and Agriculture Organizationwas 11.9 milliontonnes,led by China with 75% of the total:

Mushroom and truffle production, 2019
Country Quantity (millions oftonnes)
China 8.94
Japan 0.47
United States 0.38
Poland 0.36
Netherlands 0.30
World 11.90
Source:FAOSTATof theUnited Nations[24]

Safety concerns

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Some wild species are toxic, or at least indigestible, when raw.[25]Failure to identify poisonous mushrooms and confusing them with edible ones has resulted in death.[25][26][27]Although in the 21st century primitive digital applications exist to aid with identification, these are unreliable and some inexperienced hunters relying upon them have been seriously poisoned.[28]

Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms and responsible for many fatal poisonings include several species of the genusAmanita,particularlyAmanita phalloides,the death cap. Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can causeallergic reactionsin some individuals with no prior knowledge of an allergy; old or improperly stored specimens can go rancid quickly and causefood poisoning.Great care should therefore be taken when eating any fungus for the first time, and only small quantities should be consumed in case of individual allergies or reactions. Even normally edible species of mushrooms may be dangerous, as certain mushrooms growing in polluted locations can act as chemical-absorbers,accumulatingpollutants andheavy metals,includingarsenicandiron,sometimes in lethal concentrations.[29]On the other hand, some cooking preparations may reduce the toxicity of slightly poisonous mushrooms enough to be consumed as survival food.[citation needed]

Additionally, several varieties of fungi are known and documented to containpsychedelicdrugs—the so-calledmagic mushrooms—yet resemble perfectly edible, non-psychoactivespecies. While not necessarily lethal to consume, to the uninitiated, an accidentally induced psychedelic experience can run the gamut from benign to terrifying, even depressing or psychotic. The most commonly consumed for recreational psychoactive use areAmanita muscaria(the fly agaric) andPsilocybe cubensis,with the former containing alkaloids such asmuscimoland the latter predominatelypsilocybin.Both have the potential to induce in the user feelings of awe, wonder with nature, interesting visual hallucinations and inner peace (even in mild doses), but excessive or accidental consumption can create feelings of insanity, helplessness and fear, usually persisting for a few hours.

Nutrition

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White mushrooms,cooked, boiled, drained, without salt
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy117 kJ (28 kcal)
5.3 g
0.5 g
2.2 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
0%
0 μg
Thiamine (B1)
8%
0.1 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
23%
0.3 mg
Niacin (B3)
28%
4.5 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
44%
2.2 mg
Vitamin B6
6%
0.1 mg
Folate (B9)
5%
18 μg
Vitamin B12
0%
0 μg
Choline
4%
19.9 mg
Vitamin D
3%
21 IU
Vitamin E
0%
0 mg
Vitamin K
0%
0 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
0%
6 mg
Copper
56%
0.5 mg
Iron
9%
1.7 mg
Magnesium
3%
12 mg
Manganese
4%
0.1 mg
Phosphorus
7%
87 mg
Potassium
12%
356 mg
Selenium
24%
13.4 μg
Zinc
8%
0.9 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water91.1 g
Link to Full USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated usingUS recommendationsfor adults,[30]except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation fromthe National Academies.[31]

Higher mushroom consumption has been associated with lower risk ofbreast cancer.[32]As of 2021,mushroom consumption has not been shown to conclusively affectrisk factors for cardiovascular diseases.[33]

A commonly eaten mushroom is thewhite mushroom(Agaricus bisporus). In a100-gram (3+1⁄2-ounce) reference serving,Agaricusmushrooms provide 92 kilojoules (22 kilocalories) offood energyand are 92% water, 3%carbohydrates,3%protein,and 0.3%fat.They contain high levels ofriboflavin,niacin,andpantothenic acid,with moderate content ofphosphorus(see table). Otherwise, raw white mushrooms generally have low amounts ofessential nutrients.Although cooking by boiling lowers mushroom water content only 1%, the contents per 100 grams for several nutrients increase appreciably, especially fordietary minerals.[citation needed]

The content ofvitamin Dis absent or low unless mushrooms are exposed tosunlightor purposely treated with artificialultraviolet light,even after harvesting and processed into dry powder.[34][35]

Vitamin D

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Name Chemical composition Structure
Vitamin D1 ergocalciferolwithlumisterol,1:1[36]
Vitamin D2 ergocalciferol(made fromergosterol)
Vitamin D3 cholecalciferol(made from7-Dehydrocholesterolin the skin).

When exposed toUV lightbefore or afterharvest,mushrooms convert their large concentrations ofergosterolintovitamin D2.[34][35]This is similar to thereaction in humans,wherevitamin D3is synthesized after exposure to sunlight.

Testing showed an hour of UV light exposure before harvesting made a serving of mushrooms contain twice theFDA'sdaily recommendationof vitamin D. With 5 minutes of artificial UV light exposure after harvesting, a serving of mushrooms contained four times as much.[34]Analysis also demonstrated that naturalsunlightproduced vitamin D2.[35]

The form of vitamin D found in UV-irradiated mushrooms isergocalciferol,or vitamin D2.This is not the same ascholecalciferol,calledvitamin D3,which is produced by UV-irradiation of human or animal skin, fur, and feathers. Although vitamin D2has vitamin-D activity in humans, and is widely used infood fortificationandnutritional supplements,vitamin D3is more commonly used in dairy and cereal products.

Uses

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Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are eitherharvested wildor cultivated. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available inmarkets;those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the prizedtruffle,matsutake,andmorel) may be collected on a smaller scale by private gatherers, and are sometimes available atfarmers' marketsor other local grocers. Mushrooms can be purchased fresh when in season, and many species are also sold dried.

Before assuming that any wild mushroom is edible, it should be correctlyidentified.Accurate determination of and proper identification of a species is the only safe way to ensure edibility, and the only safeguard against possible poisoning. Some edible species cannot be identified without the use of advanced techniques such as chemistry or microscopy.

History

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Mycophagy(/maɪˈkɒfədʒi/), the act of consuming mushrooms, dates back to ancient times. Edible mushroom species have been found in association with 13,000-year-old archaeological sites inChile.Ötzi,themummyof a man who lived between 3400 and 3100 BCE in Europe, was found with two types of mushroom. The Chinese value mushrooms for their supposed medicinal properties as well as for food.Ancient RomansandGreeks,particularly the upper classes, used mushrooms for culinary purposes.Food tasterswere employed byRoman emperorsto ensure that mushrooms were safe to eat.[37]The Forme of Cury,a 14th-century compilation of medieval English recipes, features a recipe of mushrooms and leeks cooked in broth.[38]

Culinary

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See also:List of mushroom dishes

Cooking

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Mushrooms may be cooked before consumption to improve texture and lower trace levels of toxic hydrazines. Frying, roasting, baking, and microwaving are all used to prepare mushrooms. Cooking lowers the amount of water present in the food. Mushrooms do not go mushy with long term cooking because thechitinthat gives most of the structure to a mushroom does not break down until 380 °C (716 °F) which is not reached in any normal cooking.[39][40]

Storage

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Mushrooms will usually last a few days, longer if refrigerated. Mushrooms can be frozen, but are best cooked first. They can also bedriedorpickled.

In traditional medicine

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Main article:Medicinal fungi

Medicinal mushrooms are mushrooms orextractsfrom mushrooms that are thought to be treatments fordiseases,yet remain unconfirmed in mainstream science and medicine, and so are not approved asdrugsormedical treatments.[41]Such use of mushrooms therefore falls into the domain oftraditional medicine[42]for which there is no directhigh-quality clinical evidenceof efficacy.[43][44]

Preliminary research on mushroom extracts has been conducted to determine if anti-diseaseproperties exist, such as forpolysaccharide-K[45]orlentinan.[46]Some extracts have widespread use in Japan, Korea and China, as potentialadjuvantsforradiation treatmentsandchemotherapy.[47][48]

See also

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References

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  2. ^Chang, Shu-Ting; Phillip G. Miles (1989).Mushrooms: cultivation, nutritional value, medicinal effect, and Environmental Impact.CRC Press.pp. 4–6.ISBN978-0-8493-1043-0.
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  5. ^Paul Adams (24 November 2015)."Put the science of umami to work for you".Popular Science, Bonnier Corporation.Retrieved11 December2015.
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  10. ^abAlla Katsnelson (April 26, 2022)."Cultivating Coveted Morels Year-Round and Indoors".The New York Times.RetrievedJune 9,2023.
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