Elm

For other uses, seeElm (disambiguation).

Elmsaredeciduousandsemi-deciduoustrees comprising the genusUlmusin the familyUlmaceae.They are distributed over most of the Northern Hemisphere, inhabiting thetemperateandtropical-montaneregions of North America and Eurasia, presently ranging southward in the Middle East to Lebanon and Israel,and across the Equator in the Far East into Indonesia.

Elm Temporal range:
U. minor,East Coker
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Clade:	Rosids
Order:	Rosales
Family:	Ulmaceae
Genus:	Ulmus L.
Species
See List of elm species List of elm cultivars, hybrids and hybrid cultivars List of elm synonyms and accepted names

Elms are components of many kinds of naturalforests.Moreover, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, many species andcultivarswere also planted as ornamental street, garden, and park trees inEurope,North America, and parts of theSouthern Hemisphere,notablyAustralasia.Some individual elms reached great size and age. However, in recent decades, most mature elms of European or North American origin have died fromDutch elm disease,caused by amicrofungusdispersed bybark beetles.In response, disease-resistant cultivars have been developed, capable of restoring the elm to forestry andlandscaping.

Description

The genus ishermaphroditic,havingapetalousperfect flowerswhich are wind-pollinated. Elmleavesare alternate, with simple, single- or, most commonly,doubly serratemargins, usually asymmetric at the base andacuminateat theapex.The fruit is a round wind-dispersedsamaraflushed withchlorophyll,facilitating photosynthesis before the leaves emerge.The samarae are very light, those of British elms numbering around 50,000 to thepound(454g).(Very rarely anomalous samarae occur with more than two wings.) All species are tolerant of a wide range of soils andpHlevels but, with few exceptions, demand good drainage. The elm tree can grow to great height, theAmerican elmin excess of 30 m (100 ft),often with a forked trunk creating a vase profile.

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  'Sapporo Autumn Gold', Antella,Florence
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  Wych elm (Ulmus glabra) leaves and seeds
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  Asymmetry of leaf, slippery elmU. rubra
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  Mature bark, slippery elmU. rubra
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  Flowers of the hybrid elm cultivar 'Columella'
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  Corky wings, Cedar elm,U. crassifolia
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  U. laciniatasamara
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  U. americana,Dufferin St.,Toronto, c. 1914
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  Ulmus parvifoliabark

Taxonomy

Main articles:List of elm species;List of elm cultivars, hybrids and hybrid cultivars;andList of elm synonyms and accepted names

There are about 30 to 40speciesofUlmus(elm); the ambiguity in number results from difficulty in delineating species, owing to the ease ofhybridizationbetween them and the development of local seed-sterile vegetatively propagatedmicrospeciesin some areas, mainly in the Ulmus field elm (Ulmus minor) group.Oliver RackhamdescribesUlmusas the most critical genus in the entire British flora, adding that 'species and varieties are a distinction in the human mind rather than a measured degree of genetic variation'. Eight species are endemic to North America and three to Europe, but the greatest diversity is in Asia with approximately two dozen species.The oldest fossils ofUlmusare leaves datingPaleocene,found across the Northern Hemisphere.

The classification adopted in the List of elm species is largely based on that established by Brummitt.A large number of synonyms have accumulated over the last three centuries; their currently accepted names can be found in the list ofElm synonyms and accepted names.

Botanists who study elms and argue over elm identification and classification are called "pteleologists", from the Greek πτελέα (elm).

As part of the suborderurticalean rosids,they are distantly related tocannabis,mulberries,figs,hops,andnettles.

Ecology

Propagation

A rooted cutting of European white elm (July)

Elm propagation methods vary according to elm type and location, and the plantsman's needs. Native species may be propagated by seed. In their natural setting, native species, such aswych elmandEuropean white elmin central and northern Europe andfield elmin southern Europe, set viable seed in "favourable" seasons. Optimal conditions occur after a late warm spring.After pollination, seeds of spring-flowering elms ripen and fall at the start of summer (June); they remain viable for only a few days. They are planted in sandy potting soil at a depth of 1 cm, and germinate in three weeks. Slow-germinatingAmerican elmwill remain dormant until the second season.Seeds from autumn-flowering elms ripen in the fall and germinate in the spring.Since elms may hybridize within and between species, seed propagation entails a hybridisation risk. In unfavourable seasons, elm seeds are usually sterile. Elms outside their natural range, such as English elmU. minor'Atinia',and elms unable to pollinate because pollen sources are genetically identical, are sterile and are propagated byvegetative reproduction.Vegetative reproduction is also used to produce genetically identical elms (clones). Methods include the winter transplanting ofroot suckers;taking hardwood cuttings from vigorous one-year-old shoots in late winter,taking root cuttings in early spring; taking softwood cuttings in early summer;grafting;ground and air layering;andmicropropagation.A bottom heat of 18 °Cand humid conditions are maintained for hard- and softwood cuttings. The transplanting of root suckers remains the easiest most and common propagation method for European field elm and its hybrids. For specimen urban elms, grafting to wych-elm rootstock may be used to eliminate suckering or to ensure stronger root growth. The mutant-elm cultivars are usually grafted, the "weeping" elms'Camperdown'and'Horizontalis'at 2–3 m (7–10 ft), the dwarf cultivars'Nana'and'Jacqueline Hillier'at ground level. Since theSiberian elmis drought tolerant, in dry countries, new varieties of elm are often root-grafted onto this species.

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  Ripe samarae of field elm
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  Rock elmUlmus thomasiigerminating
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  Seedling of wych elmU. glabra
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  Root-suckers spreading fromfield elmU. minor
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  Root cuttings ofU.'Dodoens'
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  Rooted hardwood elm cutting
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  Rooting of softwood cuttings under mist
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  Mutantvariegated smooth-leafed elmgraft
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  AirlayeringofU. pumila
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  In vitro propagation ofU. chenmouiby budmeristem
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  Aerial roots,hybrid elm cultivar

Associated organisms

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  Pouchleaf gallson a wych elm (aphidTetraneura ulmi), Germany
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  Pouch leaf gall on elm leaf (aphidT. ulmi), the Netherlands
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  Cockscomb leaf galls (aphidColopha compressa), Poland
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  Bladder leaf galls on elm leaves (aphidEriosoma lanuginosum), Italy
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  Bladder leaf galls on a narrow-leaved elm (aphidE. lanuginosum), Italy
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  Aphids in leaf gall, Poland
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  Pimple leaf galls on a field elm (miteEriophyes ulmi), Spain
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  White-letter hairstreakSatyrium w-album,onLutece,Sweden: The larvae feed only on elm.
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  Egg ofSatyrium w-albumnear flower-bud of an elm
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  Elm-bark beetleScolytus multistriatus(size: 2–3 mm), a vector for Dutch elm disease
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  Scolytus multistriatusgalleries under elm bark
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  Elm-leaf beetleXanthogaleruca luteola,which causes serious damage to elm foliage
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  Xanthogaleruca luteolacaterpillar on elm leaf, Germany
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  Elm-leaf damage caused byX. luteola,Germany
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  Bacterial infectionErwinia carotovoraof elm sap, which causesslime flux(wetwood) and staining of the trunk (here on a 'Camperdown' elm)

Pests and diseases

Main article:List of elm diseases

Dutch elm disease

Main article:Dutch elm disease

Golden elmtree withDutch elm disease

Dutch elm disease (DED) devastated elms throughout Europe and much of North America in the second half of the 20th century. It derives its name "Dutch" from the first description of the disease and its cause in the 1920s by Dutch botanistsBea SchwarzandChristina Johanna Buisman.Owing to its geographical isolation and effective quarantine enforcement, Australia has so far remained unaffected by DED, as have the provinces ofAlbertaandBritish Columbiainwestern Canada.

DED is caused by a microfungustransmitted by two species ofScolytuselm-barkbeetles,which act asvectors.The disease affects all species of elms native to North America and Europe, but many Asiatic species have evolved antifungal genes and are resistant. Fungal spores, introduced into wounds in the tree caused by the beetles, invade thexylemor vascular system. The tree responds by producingtyloses,effectively blocking the flow from roots to leaves. Woodland trees in North America are not quite as susceptible to the disease because they usually lack the root grafting of the urban elms and are somewhat more isolated from each other. In France, inoculation with the fungus of over 300 clones of the European species failed to find a single variety that possessed of any significant resistance.

The first, less aggressive strain of the disease fungus,Ophiostoma ulmi,arrived in Europe from Asia in 1910, and was accidentally introduced to North America in 1928. It was steadily weakened by viruses in Europe and had all but disappeared by the 1940s. However, the disease had a much greater and longer-lasting impact in North America, owing to the greater susceptibility of the American elm,Ulmus americana,which masked the emergence of the second, far more virulent strain of the diseaseOphiostoma novo-ulmi.It appeared in the United States sometime in the 1940s, and was originally believed to be a mutation ofO. ulmi.Limited gene flow fromO. ulmitoO. novo-ulmiwas probably responsible for the creation of the North American subspeciesO. novo-ulmisubsp.americana.It was first recognized in Britain in the early 1970s, believed to have been introduced via a cargo of Canadian rock elm destined for the boatbuilding industry, and rapidly eradicated most of the mature elms from western Europe. A second subspecies,O. novo-ulmisubsp.novo-ulmi,caused similar devastation in Eastern Europe and Central This subspecies, which was introduced to North America, and likeO. ulmi,is thought to have originated in Asia. The two subspecies have now hybridized in Europe where their ranges have overlapped.The hypothesis thatO. novo-ulmiarose from a hybrid of the originalO. ulmiand another strain endemic to theHimalayas,Ophiostoma himal-ulmi,is now discredited.

No sign indicates the current pandemic is waning, and no evidence has been found of a susceptibility of the fungus to a disease of its own caused byd-factors:naturally occurring virus-like agents that severely debilitated the originalO. ulmiand reduced its sporulation.

Elm phloem necrosis

Elm phloem necrosis (elm yellows)is adiseaseof elm trees that is spread byleafhoppersor by root grafts.This very aggressive disease, with no known cure, occurs in theEastern United States,southernOntarioin Canada, and Europe. It is caused byphytoplasmasthat infect the phloem (inner bark) of the tree.Infection and death of thephloemeffectively girdles the tree and stops the flow of water and nutrients. The disease affects both wild-growing and cultivated trees. Occasionally, cutting the infected tree before the disease completely establishes itself and cleanup and prompt disposal of infected matter has resulted in the plant's survival via stump sprouts.

Insects

Theelm leaf beetle

Most serious of the elm pests is theelm leaf beetleXanthogaleruca luteola,which can decimate foliage, although rarely with fatal results. The beetle was accidentally introduced to North America from Europe. Another unwelcome immigrant to North America is theJapanese beetlePopillia japonica.In both instances, the beetles cause far more damage in North America owing to the absence of the predators in their native lands. In Australia, introduced elm trees are sometimes used as food plants by the larvae ofhepialidmothsof the genusAenetus.These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down.Circa 2000, the Asian Zig-zag sawflyAproceros leucopodaappeared in Europe and North America, although in England, its impact has been minimal and it is no longer monitored.

Birds

Sapsuckerwoodpeckers have a great love of young elm trees.

The ball-headed graftnarvan elm,Ulmus minor'Umbraculifera', cultivated in Persia and widely planted in central Asia

Lafayette Street inSalem, Massachusetts- an example of the high-tunneled effects ofUlmus americanaavenues once common in New England (colorized postcard, 1910)

Cultivation

Camperdown elm (Ulmus glabra'Camperdownii'), cultivated in Prospect Park,Brooklyn, New York

An avenue of elm trees inFitzroy Gardens,Melbourne

See also:List of elm cultivars, hybrids and hybrid cultivars

One of the earliest of ornamental elms was the ball-headed graftnarvan elm,Ulmus minor'Umbraculifera',cultivated from time immemorial inPersiaas a shade tree and widely planted in cities through much of south-west and central Asia. From the 18th century to the early 20th century, elms, whether species, hybrids, orcultivars,were among the most widely planted ornamental trees in both Europe and North America. They were particularly popular as a street tree inavenueplantings in towns and cities, creating high-tunnelled effects. Their quick growth and variety of foliage and forms,their tolerance of air-pollution, and the comparatively rapid decomposition of theirleaf litterin the fall were further advantages.

In North America, the species most commonly planted was the American elm (U. americana), which had unique properties that made it ideal for such use - rapid growth, adaptation to a broad range ofclimatesand soils, strong wood, resistance to wind damage, and vase-like growth habit requiring minimalpruning.In Europe, thewych elm (U. glabra)and thefield elm (U. minor)were the most widely planted in the countryside, the former in northern areas including Scandinavia and northernBritain,the latter further south. The hybrid between these two,Dutch elm (U. × hollandica),occurs naturally and was also commonly planted. In much of England, theEnglish elmlater came to dominate the horticultural landscape. Most commonly planted in hedgerows, it sometimes occurred in densities over 1000/km².In south-easternAustraliaand New Zealand, large numbers of English and Dutch elms, as well as other species and cultivars, were planted as ornamentals following their introduction in the 19th century, while in northern JapanJapanese elm (U. davidianavar.japonica)was widely planted as a street tree. From about 1850 to 1920, the most prized small ornamental elm in parks and gardens was the'Camperdown' elm (U. glabra'Camperdownii'),a contorted, weepingcultivarof the wych elm grafted on to a nonweeping elm trunk to give a wide, spreading, and weeping fountain shape in large garden spaces.

In northern Europe, elms were among the few trees tolerant of saline deposits from sea spray, which can cause "salt-burning" and die-back. This tolerance made elms reliable both as shelterbelt trees exposed to sea wind, in particular along the coastlines of southern and western Britainand in the Low Countries, and as trees for coastal towns and cities.

Thisbelle époquelasted until theFirst World War,when the elm began its slide into horticultural decline. The impact of the hostilities onGermany,the origin of at least 40 cultivars, coincided with an outbreak of the early strain of DED,Ophiostoma ulmi.The devastation caused by theSecond World War,and the demise in 1944 of the hugeSpäth nurseryinBerlin,only accelerated the process. The outbreak of the new, three times more virulent, strain of DEDOphiostoma novo-ulmiin the late 1960s, brought the tree to its nadir.

Since around 1990, the elm has enjoyed a renaissance through the successful development in North America and Europe of cultivars highly resistant to DED.Consequently, the total number of named cultivars, ancient and modern, now exceeds 300, although many of the older clones, possibly over 120, have been lost to cultivation. Some of the latter, however, were by today's standards inadequately described or illustrated before the pandemic, and a number may survive, or have regenerated, unrecognised. Enthusiasm for the newer clones often remains low owing to the poor performance of earlier, supposedly disease-resistant Dutch trees released in the 1960s and 1970s. In the Netherlands, sales of elm cultivars slumped from over 56,000 in 1989 to just 6,800 in 2004,whilst in theUK,only four of the new American and European releases were commercially available in 2008.

A row ofPrinceton elmtrees, which are moderately resistant to Dutch elm disease, atScripps CollegeinClaremont, California.

Efforts to develop DED-resistant cultivars began in the Netherlands in 1928 and continued, uninterrupted by World War II, until 1992.Similar programmes were initiated in North America (1937), Italy (1978) and Spain (1986). Research has followed two paths:

Species and species cultivars

In North America, careful selection has produced a number of trees resistant not only to DED, but also to the droughts and cold winters that occur on the continent. Research in the United States has concentrated on the American elm (U. americana), resulting in the release of DED-resistant clones, notably thecultivars'Valley Forge'and'Jefferson'.Much work has also been done into the selection of disease-resistant Asiatic species and cultivars.

In 1993, Mariam B. Sticklen and James L. Sherald reported the results of experiments funded by the USNational Park Serviceand conducted atMichigan State UniversityinEast Lansingthat were designed to applygenetic engineering techniquesto the development of DED-resistant strains of American elm trees.In 2007, A. E. Newhouse and F. Schrodt of theState University of New York College of Environmental Science and ForestryinSyracusereported that youngtransgenicAmerican elm trees had shown reduced DED symptoms and normalmycorrhizalcolonization.

In Europe, the European white elm (U. laevis) has received much attention. While this elm has little innate resistance to DED, it is not favoured by the vector bark beetles. Thus it becomes colonized and infected only when no other elms are available, a rare situation in western Europe. Research in Spain has suggested that it may be the presence of atriterpene,alnulin,which makes the tree bark unattractive to the beetle species that spread the disease.This possibility, though, has not been conclusively proven.More recently, field elmsUlmus minorhighly resistant to DED have been discovered in Spain, and form the basis of a major breeding programme.

Hybrid cultivars

Owing to their innate resistance to DED, Asiatic species have been crossed with European species, or with other Asiatic elms, to produce trees that are both highly resistant to disease and tolerant of native climates. After a number of false dawns in the 1970s, this approach has produced a range of reliable hybrid cultivars now commercially available in North America and Europe.Disease resistance is invariably carried by the female parent.

Some of these cultivars, notably those with the Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila) in their ancestry, lack the forms for which the iconic American elm and English elm were prized. Moreover, several exported to northwestern Europe have proven unsuited to themaritime climateconditions there, notably because of their intolerance of anoxic conditions resulting from ponding on poorly drained soils in winter. Dutch hybridizations invariably included the Himalayan elm (Ulmus wallichiana) as a source of antifungal genes and have proven more tolerant of wet ground; they should also ultimately reach a greater size. However, the susceptibility of the cultivar 'Lobel', used as a control in Italian trials, toelm yellowshas now (2014) raised a question mark over all the Dutch clones.

Several highly resistantUlmuscultivars have been released since 2000 by the Institute of Plant Protection in Florence, most commonly featuring crosses of the Dutch cultivar'Plantijn'with the Siberian elm to produce resistant trees better adapted to the Mediterranean climate.

Cautions regarding novel cultivars

Elms take many decades to grow to maturity, and as the introduction of these disease-resistant cultivars is relatively recent, their long-term performance and ultimate size and form cannot be predicted with certainty. TheNational Elm Trialin North America, begun in 2005, is a nationwide trial to assess strengths and weaknesses of the 19 leading cultivars raised in the US over a 10-year period; European cultivars have been excluded.Meanwhile, in Europe, American and European cultivars are being assessed in field trials started in 2000 by the UK charityButterfly Conservation.

Landscaped parks

Central Park

American elm trees along the Mall and Literary Walk in New York City'sCentral Park(2013)

The oldest American elm trees in New York City'sCentral Parkwere planted in the 1860s byFrederick Law Olmsted,making them among the oldest stands of American elms in the world. Along the Mall and Literary Walk four lines of American elms stretch over the walkway forming a cathedral-like covering. A part of New York City'surban ecology,the elms improve air and water quality, reduce erosion and flooding, and decrease air temperatures during warm days.

While the stand is still vulnerable to DED, in the 1980s theCentral Park Conservancyundertook aggressive countermeasures such as heavy pruning and removal of extensively diseased trees. These efforts have largely been successful in saving the majority of the trees, although several are still lost each year. Younger American elms that have been planted in Central Park since the outbreak are of the DED-resistant 'Princeton' and 'Valley Forge' cultivars.

National Mall

Rows of American elm trees line a path south of theLincoln Memorial Reflecting Poolon the National Mall in Washington, DC (November 11, 2006)

Several rows of American elm trees that the National Park Service (NPS) first planted during the 1930s line much of the 1.9-mile-length (3 km) of theNational Mallin Washington, DC. DED first appeared on the trees during the 1950s and reached a peak in the 1970s. The NPS used a number of methods to control theepidemic,includingsanitation,pruning,injecting trees withfungicide,and replanting with DED-resistant cultivars. The NPS combated the disease's local insectvector,the smaller European elm bark beetle (Scolytus multistriatus), by trapping and by spraying withinsecticides.As a result, the population of American elms planted on the Mall and its surrounding areas has remained intact for more than 80 years.

Uses

Wood

Elm wood

Elm in boatbuilding:John Constable,Boat-Building Near Flatford Mill,1815 (landscape with hybrid elmsUlmus × hollandica)

English longbowof elm

Elmwoodis valued for its interlocking grain, and consequent resistance to splitting, with significant uses inwagon-wheel hubs,chairseats, andcoffins.The bodies of JapaneseTaikodrums are often cut from the wood of old elm trees, as the wood's resistance to splitting is highly desired for nailing the skins to them, and a set of three or more is often cut from the same tree. The elm's wood bends well and distorts easily. The often long, straight trunks were favoured as a source of timber forkeelsin ship construction. Elm is also prized bybowyers;of theancient bowsfound in Europe, a large portion are elm. During theMiddle Ages,elm was also used to makelongbowsifyewwas unavailable.

The first written references to elm occur in theLinear Blists of military equipment atKnossosin theMycenaean period.Several of the chariots are of elm ( "πτε-ρε-ϝα",pte-re-wa), and the lists twice mention wheels of elmwood.Hesiodsays that ploughs in Ancient Greece were also made partly of elm.

The density of elm wood varies between species, but averages around 560 kg/m³.

Elm wood is also resistant to decay when permanently wet, and hollowed trunks were widely used as water pipes during the medieval period in Europe. Elm was also used as piers in the construction of the originalLondon Bridge,but this resistance to decay in water does not extend to ground contact.

Viticulture

The Romans, and more recently the Italians, planted elms in vineyards as supports for vines. Lopped at 3 m, the elms' quick growth, twiggy lateral branches, light shade, and root suckering made them ideal trees for this purpose. The lopped branches were used for fodder and firewood.Ovidin hisAmorescharacterizes the elm as "loving the vine":ulmus amat vitem, vitis non deserit ulmum(the elm loves the vine, the vine does not desert the elm),and the ancients spoke of the "marriage" betweenelm and vine.

Medicinal products

Themucilaginousinner barkof the slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) has long been used as ademulcent,and is still produced commercially for this purpose in the US with approval for sale as anutritional supplementby theFood and Drug Administration.

Fodder

Elms also have a long history of cultivation forfodder,with the leafy branches cut to feedlivestock.The practice continues today in the Himalaya, where it contributes to serious deforestation.

Biomass

Asfossil fuelresources diminish, increasing attention is being paid to trees as sources of energy. In Italy, theIstituto per la Protezione delle Pianteis (2012) in the process of releasing to commerce very fast-growing elm cultivars, able to increase in height by more than 2 m (6 ft) per year.

Food

Elm bark,cut into strips and boiled, sustained much of the rural population ofNorwayduring the great famine of 1812. The seeds are particularly nutritious, containing 45% crude protein, and less than 7% fibre by dry mass.

Internal mill-wheel of elm, De Hoop mill,Oldebroek,Netherlands

Alternative medicine

Elm has been listed as one of the 38 substances that are used to prepareBach flower remedies,a kind ofalternative medicine.

Bonsai

Chinese ElmUlmus parvifoliabonsai

Chinese elm (Ulmus parvifolia) is a popular choice forbonsaiowing to its tolerance of severe pruning.

Genetic resource conservation

In 1997, aEuropean Unionelm project was initiated, its aim to coordinate the conservation of all the elmgenetic resourcesof the member states and, among other things, to assess their resistance to Dutch elm disease. Accordingly, over 300 clones were selected and propagated for testing.

Culture

Notable elm trees

Main article:Lists of elm trees

Many elm trees of various kinds have attained great size or otherwise become particularly noteworthy.

In art

Many artists have admired elms for the ease and grace of their branching and foliage, and have painted them with sensitivity. Elms are a recurring element in the landscapes and studies of, for example,John Constable,Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller,Frederick Childe Hassam,Karel Klinkenberg,andGeorge Inness.

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  John Constable,Elm trees in Old Hall Park, East Bergholt[1817] (Ulmus × hollandica)
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  John Constable,Study of an Elm Tree[1821]
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  John Constable,The Cornfield[1826] (Ulmus × hollandica)
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  Constable,Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Garden[1823 version] (Ulmus × hollandica)
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  Jacob George Strutt,Elms at Mongewell, Oxfordshire[1830] (U. minor'Atinia')
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  Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller,Alte Ulmen im Prater(Old Elms inPrater) [1831]
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  James Duffield Harding,The Great Exhibition of 1851(U. minor'Atinia', centre)
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  Arthur Hughes,Home from Sea[1862] (U. minor'Atinia')
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  Ford Madox Brown,Work[1863] (U. minor'Atinia')
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  [unknown artist]The American Elm[1879] (U. americana)
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  Johannes Karel Christiaan Klinkenberg,Amsterdam[1890] (Ulmus x hollandica‘Belgica')
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  Frederick Childe Hassam,Champs Elysées, Paris[1889] (Ulmus × hollandica,'orme femelle')
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  Frederick Childe Hassam,Washington Arch, Spring[1893] (U. americana)
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  Frederick Childe Hassam,Church at Old Lyme[1905] (U. americana)
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  Frederick Childe Hassam,The East Hampton Elms in May[1920] (U. americana)
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  George Inness,Old Elm at Medfield(U. americana)
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  Unknown artist,The Cam near Trinity College, Cambridge,England (U. atinia)

In mythology and literature

Achilles and Scamander

Dryad

In Greek mythology, the nymph Ptelea (Πτελέα, Elm) was one of the eighthamadryads,nymphs of the forest and daughters of Oxylos and Hamadryas.In hisHymn to Artemis,poetCallimachus(third century BC) tells how, at the age of three, the infant goddessArtemispractised her newly acquired silver bow and arrows, made for her byHephaestusand theCyclopes,by shooting first at an elm, then at an oak, before turning her aim on a wild animal:

πρῶτον ἐπὶ πτελέην, τὸ δὲ δεύτερον ἧκας ἐπὶ δρῦν, τὸ τρίτον αὖτ᾽ ἐπὶ θῆρα.

The first reference in literature to elms occurs in theIliad.WhenEetion,father ofAndromache,is killed byAchillesduring theTrojan War,themountain nymphsplant elms on his tomb ( "περί δὲ πτελέας ἐφύτευσαν νύμφαι ὀρεστιάδες, κoῦραι Διὸς αἰγιόχoιo" ). Also in theIliad,when the RiverScamander,indignant at the sight of so many corpses in his water, overflows and threatens to drown Achilles, the latter grasps a branch of a great elm in an attempt to save himself ( "ὁ δὲ πτελέην ἕλε χερσὶν εὐφυέα μεγάλην".

The nymphs also planted elms on the tomb in theThracian Chersoneseof "great-heartedProtesilaus"(" μεγάθυμου Πρωτεσιλάου "), the first Greek to fall in the Trojan War. These elms grew to be the tallest in the known world, but when their topmost branches saw far off the ruins of Troy, they immediately withered, so great still was the bitterness of the hero buried below, who had been loved byLaodamiaand slain byHector.The story is the subject of a poem byAntiphilus of Byzantium(first century AD) in thePalatine Anthology:

Θεσσαλὲ Πρωτεσίλαε, σὲ μὲν πολὺς ᾄσεται αἰών,

Tρoίᾳ ὀφειλoμένoυ πτώματος ἀρξάμενoν•

σᾶμα δὲ τοι πτελέῃσι συνηρεφὲς ἀμφικoμεῦση

Nύμφαι, ἀπεχθoμένης Ἰλίoυ ἀντιπέρας.

Δένδρα δὲ δυσμήνιτα, καὶ ἤν ποτε τεῖχoς ἴδωσι

Tρώϊον, αὐαλέην φυλλοχoεῦντι κόμην.

ὅσσoς ἐν ἡρώεσσι τότ᾽ ἦν χόλoς, oὗ μέρoς ἀκμὴν

ἐχθρὸν ἐν ἀψύχoις σώζεται ἀκρέμoσιν.

[:Thessalian Protesilaos, a long age shall sing your praises,

Of the destined dead at Troy the first;

Your tomb with thick-foliaged elms they covered,

The nymphs, across the water from hated Ilion.

Trees full of anger; and whenever that wall they see,

Of Troy, the leaves in their upper crown wither and fall.

So great in the heroes was the bitterness then, some of which still

Remembers, hostile, in the soulless upper branches.]

Protesilaus had been king ofPteleos(Πτελεός) in Thessaly, which took its name from the abundant elms (πτελέoι) in the region.

Elms occur often inpastoral poetry,where they symbolise the idyllic life, their shade being mentioned as a place of special coolness and peace. In the first Idyll ofTheocritus(third century BC), for example, the goatherd invites the shepherd to sit "here beneath the elm" ( "δεῦρ' ὑπὸ τὰν πτελέαν" ) and sing. Beside elms, Theocritus places "thesacred water"("το ἱερὸν ὕδωρ") of the Springs of the Nymphs and the shrines to the nymphs.

The Sibyl and Aeneas

Aside from references literal and metaphorical to theelm and vinetheme, the tree occurs in Latin literature in the Elm of Dreams in theAeneid.When theSibyl of CumaeleadsAeneasdown to theUnderworld,one of the sights is the Stygian Elm:

In medio ramos annosaque bracchia pandit

ulmus opaca, ingens, quam sedem somnia vulgo

uana tenere ferunt, foliisque sub omnibus haerent.

[:Spreads in the midst her boughs and agéd arms

an elm, huge, shadowy, where vain dreams, 'tis said,

are wont to roost them, under every leaf close-clinging.]

Virgilrefers to a Roman superstition (vulgo) that elms were trees of ill-omen because their fruit seemed to be of no value.It has been notedthat two elm-motifs have arisen from classical literature: (1) the 'Paradisal Elm' motif, arising from pastoral idylls and the elm-and-vine theme, and (2) the 'Elm and Death' motif, perhaps arising from Homer's commemorative elms and Virgil's Stygian Elm. Many references to elm in European literature from the Renaissance onwards fit into one or other of these categories.

There are two examples ofpteleogenesis(:birth from elms) in world myths. In Germanic and Scandinavian mythology the first woman,Embla,was fashioned from an elm, while in Japanese mythologyKamuy Fuchi,the chief goddess of theAinu people,"was born from an elm impregnated by the Possessor of the Heavens".

Under the elm,Brighton,2006

The elm occurs frequently in English literature, one of the best known instances being in Shakespeare'sA Midsummer Night's Dream,where Titania, Queen of the Fairies, addresses her beloved Nick Bottom using an elm-simile. Here, as often in the elm-and-vine motif, the elm is a masculine symbol:

Sleep thou, and I will wind thee in my arms.

... the female Ivy so

Enrings the barky fingers of the Elm.

O, how I love thee! how I dote on thee!

Another of the most famous kisses in English literature, that of Paul and Helen at the start of Forster'sHowards End,is stolen beneath a great wych elm.

The elm tree is also referenced in children's literature.An Elm Tree and Three SistersbyNorma Sommerdorfis a children's book about three young sisters who plant a small elm tree in their backyard.

In politics

Thecutting of the elmwas a diplomatic altercation between the kings of France and England in 1188, during which an elm tree near Gisors in Normandy was felled.

In politics, the elm is associated with revolutions. In England after theGlorious Revolutionof 1688, the final victory of parliamentarians over monarchists, and the arrival from Holland, withWilliam IIIandMary II,of theDutch elmhybrid, planting of this cultivar became a fashion among enthusiasts of the new political order.

In theAmerican Revolution,theLiberty Treewas an American white elm inBoston,Massachusetts, in front of which, from 1765, the first resistance meetings were held against British attempts to tax the American colonists without democratic representation. When the British, knowing that the tree was a symbol of rebellion, felled it in 1775, the Americans took to widespread Liberty Elm planting, and sewed elm symbols on to their revolutionary flags.Elm planting by American Presidents later became something of a tradition.

In theFrench Revolution,too,Les arbres de la liberté(Liberty Trees), often elms, were planted as symbols of revolutionary hopes, the first inVienne,Isère, in 1790, by a priest inspired by the Boston elm.L'Orme de La Madeleine(:the Elm of La Madeleine), Faycelles, Département de Lot, planted around 1790 and surviving to this day, was a case in point.By contrast, a famous Parisian elm associated with theAncien Régime,L'Orme de Saint-Gervaisin thePlace St-Gervais,wasfelledby the revolutionaries; church authorities planted a new elm in its place in 1846, and an early 20th-century elm stands on the site today.PremierLionel Jospin,obliged by tradition to plant a tree in the garden of theHôtel Matignon,the official residence and workplace of Prime Ministers of France, insisted on planting an elm, so-called 'tree of the Left', choosing the new disease-resistant hybrid 'Clone 762' (Ulmus'Wanoux' =Vada).In theFrench Republican Calendar,in use from 1792 to 1806, the 12th day of the monthVentôse(= 2 March) was officially named "jour de l'Orme", Day of the Elm.

Liberty Elms were also planted in other countries in Europe to celebrate their revolutions, an example beingL'Olmo di Montepaone, L'Albero della Libertà(:the Elm of Montepaone, Liberty Tree) inMontepaone,Calabria,planted in 1799 to commemorate the founding of the democraticParthenopean Republic,and surviving until it was brought down by a recent storm (it has since been cloned and 'replanted').After theGreek Revolutionof 1821–32, a thousand young elms were brought to Athens fromMissolonghi,"Sacred City of the Struggle" against the Turks and scene ofLord Byron's death, and planted in 1839–40 in the National Garden.In an ironic development, feral elms have spread and invaded the grounds of the abandoned Greek royal summer palace atTatoiinAttica.

In a chance event linking elms and revolution, on the morning of his execution (30 January 1649), walking to the scaffold at thePalace of Whitehall,King Charles Iturned to his guards and pointed out, with evident emotion, an elm near the entrance toSpring Gardensthat had been planted by hisbrotherin happier days. The tree was said to be still standing in the 1860s.

• 
  Planting a Liberty Tree (un arbre de la liberté) during theFrench Revolution.Jean-Baptiste Lesueur,1790
• 
  Balcony with elm symbol, overlooking the'Crossroads of the Elm',Place Saint-Gervais, Paris
• 
  President George W. Bush and Laura Bush planting a disease-resistant'Jefferson' Elmbefore the White House, 2006
• 
  Elm suckers spreading before the abandoned summer royal palace in Tatoi, Greece, Μarch 2008

In local history and place names

The name of what is now the London neighbourhood ofSeven Sistersis derived from seven elms which stood there at the time when it was a rural area, planted a circle with awalnuttree at their centre, and traceable on maps back to 1619.

See also

• List of elm trees
• Elm Conflict
• Fab Tree Hab

Monographs

• Richens, R. H. (1983).Elm.Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-24916-3.A scientific, historical and cultural study, with a thesis on elm-classification, followed by a systematic survey of elms in England, region by region. Illustrated.
• Heybroek, H. M., Goudzwaard, L, Kaljee, H. (2009).Iep of olm, karakterboom van de Lage Landen(:Elm, a tree with character of the Low Countries). KNNV, Uitgeverij.ISBN9789050112819.A history of elm planting in the Netherlands, concluding with a 40 – page illustrated review of all the DED – resistant cultivars in commerce in 2009.

Further reading

• Clouston, B.; Stansfield, K., eds. (1979).After the Elm.London: Heinemann.ISBN0-434-13900-9.A general introduction, with a history of Dutch elm disease and proposals for re-landscaping in the aftermath of the pandemic. Illustrated.
• Coleman, M., ed. (2009).Wych Elm.Edinburgh.ISBN978-1-906129-21-7.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)A study of the species, with particular reference to the wych elm in Scotland and its use by craftsmen.
• Dunn, Christopher P. (2000).The Elms: Breeding, Conservation, and Disease-Management.New York: Boston, Mass. Kluwer academic.ISBN0-7923-7724-9.
• Wilkinson, G. (1978).Epitaph for the Elm.London: Hutchinson.ISBN0-09-921280-3.A photographic and pictorial celebration and general introduction.

External links

• "Elm trials".Northern Arizona University.
• Tree Family UlmaceaeArchived4 January 2015 at theWayback MachineDiagnostic photos of Elm species at theMorton Arboretum
• "Late 19th and early 20th-century photos of Elm species in Elwes & Henry'sTrees of Great Britain & Ireland,v. 7 "(PDF).1913. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 3 March 2016.Retrieved18 February2008.
• "Elm Photo Gallery".
• Eichhorn, Markus (May 2010)."Elm – The Tree of Death".Test Tube.Brady Haranfor theUniversity of Nottingham.
• Texts on Wikisource:
  • "Elm".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. VIII (9th ed.). 1878. p. 151.
  • "Elm".The American Cyclopædia.Vol. 6. 1879.
  • "Elm".New International Encyclopedia.1905.
  • "Elm".Encyclopædia Britannica(11th ed.). 1911.
  • "Elm".Encyclopedia Americana.1920.
  • "Elm".Collier's New Encyclopedia.1921.