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Emmaus

For other uses, seeEmmaus (disambiguation).

Emmaus(/ɪˈmeɪəs/im-AY-əs;Koinē Greek:Ἐμμαούς,romanized:Emmaoús;Latin:Emmaus;Arabic:عمواس,romanized:ʿImwās) is a town mentioned in theGospel of Lukeof theNew Testament.Luke reports thatJesusappeared, after his death andresurrection,before two of his disciples while they were walking on the road to Emmaus.[1]

Supper at EmmausbyCaravaggio,1601

Although its geographical identification is not certain, several locations have been suggested throughout history, chieflyImwasandAl-Qubeiba,both in theWest Bank.It is known only that it was connected by a road toJerusalem;the distance given by Luke varies in different manuscripts and the figure given has been made even more ambiguous by interpretations.[2]

Names and location

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The place-name Emmaus is relatively common in classical sources about theLevantand is usually derived through Greek and Latin from theSemiticword for "warm spring", the Hebrew form of which ishammaorhammat(חמת). In the ancient and present-dayMiddle East,many sites are namedHamaHamath and variations thereof.[3]

The name for Emmaus was hellenized during the 2nd century BC and appears in Jewish and Greek texts in many variations: Ammaus, Ammaum, Emmaus, Emmaum, Maus, Amus, etc.:Greek:Άμμαούμ, Άμμαούς, Έμμαούμ, Έμμαούς,Hebrew:אמאוס, אמאום, עמאוס, עמאום, עמוס, מאום, אמהום[4]

Emmaus may derive from the Hebrewḥammat(Hebrew:חמת) meaning "hot spring",[5]although this remains uncertain. It is generally referred to in Hebrew sources asḤamtahorḤamtān.[6]A spring of Emmaus (Greek:Ἐμμαοῦς πηγή), or alternatively a 'spring of salvation' (Greek:πηγή σωτήριος) is attested in Greek sources.[7]Unlike other Biblical or Mishnaic sites with the name "Ḥamah" and where the traditional Hebrew spellingחמה‎ has been preserved in classical texts throughout the ages, Emmaus differs insofar that the traditional Hebrew spelling for this place in most classical sources isאמאוס‎ orעמאוס‎. During the lateSecond Templeperiod,[dubious–discuss]Emmaus was renamed Nicopolis ( "CityofVictory"), a name remained in use as late as the 6th-centuryMadaba Map.Emmaus is mentioned by this name inMidrashZutta for Song of Songs 6,8 andMidrash Rabbafor Lamentations 1,45,[4]and in theMidrash Rabbaon Ecclesiastes (7:15).[8]According toSozomen(fl.400–450), it was renamed by theRomans"in consequence of the conquest ofJerusalemand the victory over theJews."[9]

Emmaus in the New Testament

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Supper at Emmauswith candlelightbyMatthias Stom
Main article:Road to Emmaus appearance

Emmaus is mentioned in theGospel of Lukeas the village where Jesus appeared to his disciples after his crucifixion and resurrection.Luke 24:13–35indicates thatJesusappears after hisresurrectionto two disciples who are walking from Jerusalem to Emmaus, which is described as being 60stadia(10.4 to 12 km depending on what definition ofstadionis used) from Jerusalem. One of the disciples is namedCleopas(verse 18), while his companion remains unnamed:

That very day two of them were going to a village (one hundred and) sixty stadia away from Jerusalem called Emmaus, and they were speaking about all the things that had occurred. And it happened that while they were speaking and debating, Jesus himself drew near and walked with them, but their eyes were prevented from recognizing him… As they approached the village to which they were going, he gave the impression that he was going on further. But they urged him, "Stay with us, for it is nearly evening and the day is declining." So he went in to stay with them. And it happened that, while he was with them at table, he took bread, said the blessing, broke it, and gave it to them. With that their eyes were opened and they recognized him.

According to the gospel, the story takes place in the evening of the day of Jesus's resurrection. The two disciples hear that the tomb of Jesus was found empty earlier that day. They are discussing the events of the past few days when a stranger asks them what they are discussing. "Their eyes were kept from recognizing him." He rebukes them for their unbelief and explains prophecies about the Messiah to them. On reaching Emmaus, they ask the stranger to join them for the evening meal.

When he breaks the bread, "their eyes [are] opened" and they recognize him as the resurrected Christ. Jesus immediately vanishes. Cleopas and his friend then hasten back to Jerusalem to carry the news to the other disciples.

A similar event is mentioned in theGospel of Mark(Mark 16:12–16:13), although the disciples' destination is not stated. This passage is believed by some to be a late addition, derived from the Gospel of Luke.[10][page needed]

The incident is not mentioned in the Gospels ofMattheworJohn.

Possible locations

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Emmaus is the Greek variant of the Hebrew word and place-name forhot springs,hammat,and is therefore not unique to one location, which makes the identification of the New Testament site more difficult.

Several places inJudeaandGalileeare called Emmaus in the Bible, the works ofJosephus Flavius,and other sources from the relevant period. The one most often mentioned is a town of some importance situated in the Valley ofAjalon(today, Ayyalon), later calledEmmaus Nicopolis.[citation needed]

Historical identification

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Print of theDiner in Emmaüs.Preserved in theGhent University Library.[11]

Many sites have been suggested for the biblical Emmaus, among them Emmaus Nicopolis (c. 160 stadia from Jerusalem),Kiryat Anavim(66 stadia from Jerusalem on the carriage road toJaffa), Coloniya (c. 36 stadia on the carriage road to Jaffa), el-Kubeibeh (63 stadia, on theRoman roadtoLydda),Artas(60 stadia from Jerusalem) and Khurbet al-Khamasa (86 stadia on the Roman road toEleutheropolis).[12]The oldest identification that is currently known is Emmaus Nicopolis. The identification is complicated by the fact that New Testament manuscripts list at least three different distances between Jerusalem and Emmaus in Luke 24:13-14.[13]

Emmaus Nicopolis/Imwas

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Main article:Imwas

The first modern site identification of Emmaus was by the explorerEdward Robinson,who equated it with thePalestinian Arabvillage ofImwas(Arabic:عِمواس), near the Latrun Abbey.[14]Beforeits destructionduring theSix-Day Warin 1967, the village of Imwas was located at the end of theAyalon Valley,on the border of the hill country ofJudah,at 153 stadia (18.6 miles) fromJerusalemvia the Kiryat Yearim Ridge Route, 161 stadia (19.6 miles) via theBeth-Horon Ridge Routeand 1,600 feet (490 m) lower by elevation.

Eusebiuswas probably the first to mention Nicopolis as biblical Emmaus in his Onomasticon.Jerome,who translated Eusebius' book, implied in his letter 108 that there was a church in Nicopolis built in the house ofCleopaswhere Jesus broke bread on that late journey. From the 4th century on, the site was commonly identified as the biblical Emmaus.

Emmaus Nicopolis appears on Roman geographical maps. ThePeutinger Tablesituates it about 31 km (19 mi) west of Jerusalem, while thePtolemymap shows it at a distance of 32 km (20 mi) from the city. The Emmaus in theGospel of Lukeseems to lie some 12.1 km (7.5 mi) from Jerusalem, though a textual minor variant, conserved inCodex Sinaiticus,gives the distance between the New Testament Emmaus and Jerusalem as 160 stadia.[15]The geographical position of Emmaus is described in theJerusalem Talmud,Tractate Sheviit 9.2:[16]

FromBet Horonto the Sea is one domain. Yet is it one domain without regions? Rabbi Johanan said, "Still there is Mountain, Lowland, and Valley. From Bet Horon to Emmaus (Hebrew:אמאום,lit. 'Emmaum') it is Mountain, from Emmaus to Lydda Lowland, from Lydda to the Sea Valley. Then there should be four stated? They are adjacent. "

Archaeologically, many remains have been excavated at the site of the former Palestinian village, now located insideCanada Park,which support historical and traditional claims. Five structures were found and dated, including a Christian basilica from the 6th century and a 12th-century Crusader church.[17]Emmaus Nicopolis is atitular seeof theRoman Catholic Church.[2]

There are several sources giving information about this town's ancient history, among them the First Book of Maccabees, the works of Josephus, and chronicles from the Late Roman, Byzantine and Early Muslim periods. According to1 Maccabees3:55-4:22, around 166 BCJudas Maccabeusfought against theSeleucidsin the region of this particular Emmaus, and was victorious at theBattle of Emmaus;later, this town was fortified byBacchides,a Seleucid general (1 Macc 9:50). When Rome took over the land it became the capital of a district ortoparchy,and was burnt by order ofVarusafter the death ofHerodin 4 BC. During theFirst Jewish Revolt,before the siege of Jerusalem,Vespasian's 5th legion was deployed there while the 10th Legion was inJericho.The town was renamed Emmaus Nicopolis in AD 221 by EmperorElagabalus,who conferred it the title ofpolis( "city" ) following the request of a delegation from Emmaus. ThePlague of Emmausin AD 639, mentioned in Muslim sources, is claimed to have caused up to 25,000 deaths in the town.

The Byzantine Basilica of Emmaus Nicopolis (5th–7th cent.), restored by Crusaders during the 12th century
Emmaus Nicopolis onMadaba map

Nicopolis (‹See Tfd›Greek:Νικόπολις,Nikópolis) was the name of Emmaus (Hebrew:אמאוס;‹See Tfd›Greek:Ἀμμαοῦς,Ammaoûs;Arabic:عِمواس,Imwas) under theRoman Empireuntil theconquest of Palestineby theRashidun Caliphatein 639. TheChurch Fathersunanimously considered this city to be the Emmaus of theNew TestamentwhereJesuswas said to haveappearedafter hisdeathandresurrection;it is sometimes distinguished fromother EmmausesofPalestineand otherNicopolisesof the Roman Empire by the combined nameEmmaus NicopolisorEmmaus-Nicopolis.The site of the ancient city, now lies betweenTel Avivand Jerusalem in Israel. The archaeological site has been cared for by a residentFrench Catholiccommunity since 1993 but are formally organized as a part ofCanada Parkunder the general supervision of theIsrael Nature and Parks Authority.[18][4]

Hellenistic, Hasmonean period

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Due to its strategic position, Emmaus played an important administrative, military and economic role in history. The first mention of Emmaus occurs in theFirst Book of Maccabees,chapters 3–4, in the context ofJudas Maccabeusand his revolt against the GreekSeleucid Empirein the 2nd centuryBC.The first major battle of the revolt, theBattle of Emmaus,is traditionally believed to have occurred in this area, with the Seleucids establishing a fortified camp here from which to control the countryside.[8]During theHasmoneanperiod, Emmaus became a regional administrative centre (toparchy) in theAyalonValley.[19]

According to one theory, Emmaus of the Hasmonean and early Roman periods was located atHorvat 'Eqed.[20]

Roman period

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Byzantinebaptisteryat Emmaus Nicopolis

Josephus Flaviusmentions Emmaus in his writings several times.[21]He speaks about the destruction of Emmaus by theRomansin the year 4BC.[22]The importance of the city was recognized by the EmperorVespasian,who established a fortified camp there inAD68 to house the fifth ( "Macedonian" ) legion,[23]populating it with 800 veterans,[24][25]though this may refer toQalunyarather than Emmaus Nicopolis.[26]Archaeological works indicate that the town was cosmopolitan, with a mixed Jewish, pagan and Samaritan population, the presence of the last group being attested by the remains of aSamaritansynagogue.[6]InAD130 or 131, the city was destroyed by an earthquake. In 132, the ruins of Emmaus fortress were briefly reconstructed by Judean rebels under Simon Bar Kokhba and used as a hideout during therevolt.[27]

The city of Nicopolis was founded on the ruins of Emmaus in early 3rd century, afterJulius Africanus,who said he had interviewed descendants of Jesus' relatives, headed an embassy to Rome and had an interview with the Roman emperorElagabaluson behalf of Emmaus, then a small Palestinian village (κώμη).[28]St. Eusebius writes "Emmaus, whence was Cleopas who is mentioned by the Evangelist Luke. Today it is Nicopolis, a famous city of Palestine."[29]In 222, abasilicawas erected there, which was rebuilt first by the Byzantines and later modified by theCrusaders.[6]

Byzantine period

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During the Byzantine period Nicopolis became a large city and abishopric.A substantial church complex was erected on the spot where tradition maintained the apparition of therisenChristhad occurred, a site which then became a place ofpilgrimage,and whose ruins are still extant.

Early Muslim period

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At the time of theIslamic conquest of Palestine,the main encampment of the Arab army was established in Emmaus, when a plague (ța'ūn) struck, carrying off many ofCompanions of the Prophet.This first encounter of the Arab armies with the chronic plagues ofSyriawas later referred to as the 'plague of 'Amawās', a and the event marked the decline of Emmaus Nicopolis. A well on the site still bears an inscription reading "the well of the plague" (bi'r aț-ța'ūn).[6]

Crusader period

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During theCrusader period,the Christian presence resumed at Emmaus, and the Byzantine church was restored. However, the memory of the apparition of the risen Jesus at Emmaus also started to be celebrated in three other places in the Holy Land:Motza(c. 4 mi or 6 km west of Jerusalem),Qubeibe(c. 7 mi or 11 km northwest of Jerusalem), andAbu Ghosh(c. 7 mi or 11 km west of Jerusalem).

Ottoman period

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The Arab village of Imwas was identified once again as thebiblicalEmmaus and the Roman-Byzantine Nicopolis by scholars in the 19th century, includingEdward Robinson(1838–1852),[30][31]M.-V. Guérin(1868),Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau(1874), and J.-B. Guillemot (1880–1887). Significantly, a local mystic named SaintMariam of Jesus Crucified,a nun of theCarmelitemonastery ofBethlehem,had a revelation while in ecstatic prayer in 1878 in whichJesusappeared to indicate Amwas was the Gospel Emmaus. "She came to the top of a knoll where, amid grass and thorns, there were some freestones leveled. Transported and moved, she turned toward her sisters [in religion], and said to them in a loud voice: 'This is truly the place where our Lord ate with His disciples.'"[32]On the basis of this revelation, the holy place of Emmaus was acquired by the Carmelite order from theMuslimsin 1878, excavations were carried out, and the flow of pilgrims to Emmaus resumed.

British Mandate

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In 1930, the Carmelite Order built a monastery, theHouse of Peace,on the tract of land purchased in 1878. In November 1947, theUnited Nations Partition Plan for Palestineattributed the area to the Arab State. Prior to the outbreak of hostilities in the1948 Arab–Israeli War,ʻImwâs had a population of 1,100 Arabs.[33]

Jordan

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Israelis and Jordanians fought during thebattle of Latrunfor the control of this strategic zone which blockaded the road to Jerusalem. As part of the outcome of thewarthe Palestinian village ofImwas,which lay on the site of Emmaus Nicopolis, fell within theWest Bankterritory underJordanianrule.

Israel

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Map of Canada Park.

In 1967, after theSix-Day Warthe residents of ImwasIsraeli forces expelled the populationand the village was razed by bulldozers,[34]leaving the Byzantine-crusader church, called in Arabic,al-Kenisah,[35]intact in their cemetery. The Catholic congregation, theCommunity of the Beatitudes,renovated the site in 1967–1970 and opened the French Center for the Study of the Prehistory of the Land of Israel next to it where they were allowed to settle in 1993.[36]

Subsequently,Canada Parkwas created in 1973, financed by theJewish National Fund(JNF) of Canada, and included the plantation of a forest on the rubble of Imwas.[37][unreliable source?]The site became a favourite picnic ground for Israelis[38]and the Latrun salient an area of Israeli commemoration of itsWar of Independence.[39][40]

Archaeology

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Byzantine mosaic from Emmaus Nicopolis

Archaeological excavations inImwasstarted in the late 19th century and continue nowadays: Clermont-Ganneau (1874), J.-B. Guillemot (1883–1887),DominicanFathersL.-H. Vincent&F.-M. Abel(1924–1930),[41]Y. Hirschfeld(1975),[42]M. Gichon (1978),[43]Mikko Louhivuori, M. Piccirillo, V. Michel, K.-H. Fleckenstein (since 1994).[44]During excavations inCanada Park( Ayalon forest) ruins of Emmaus fortifications from the Hasmonean era were discovered, along with a Romanbathhousefrom the 3rd century CE, Jewish burial caves from the 1st century CE, Roman-Byzantine hydraulic installations, oil presses and tombs. Other findings were coins, oil lamps, vessels, jewellery. The eastern (rear) three-apsidalwall of the Byzantine church was cleared, with an externalbaptisteryand polychrome mosaics, as well as walls of the Crusader church which were built against the central Byzantineapse(12th century). In the area of Emmaus, severalHebrew,Samaritan,Greekand Latin inscriptions carved on stones have been found.[citation needed]

Identification with the Gospel site

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Most manuscripts of the Gospel of Luke which came down to us indicate the distance of 60 stadia (c. 11 km) between Jerusalem and Emmaus. However, there are several manuscripts which state the distance as 160 stadia (31 km). These include theuncialmanuscripts א (Codex Sinaiticus), Θ, Ν, Κ, Π, 079 and cursive (minuscule) manuscripts 158, 175, 223, 237, 420, as well as ancient lectionaries[45]and translations into Latin (some manuscripts of the Vetus Latina,[46]high-quality manuscripts of theVulgate[47]), in Aramaic,[48]GeorgianandArmenianlanguages.[49]The version of 60 stadia has been adopted for the printed editions of the Gospel of Luke since the 16th century. The main argument against the version of 160 stadia claims that it is impossible to walk such a distance in one day. In keeping with the principle ofLectio difficilior, lectio verior,the most difficult version is presumed to be genuine, since ancient copyists of the Bible were inclined to change the text in order to facilitate understanding, but not vice versa. It is possible to walk from Jerusalem to Emmaus and back in one day.[citation needed]

The ancient Jewish sources (1 Maccabees,Josephus Flavius, Talmud and Midrash) mention only one village called Emmaus in the area of Jerusalem: Emmaus of Ajalon Valley.[50]For example, in the "Jewish War" (4, 8, 1) Josephus Flavius mentions thatVespasianplaced the 5th Macedonian Legion in Emmaus. This has been confirmed by archaeologists who have discovered inscribed tombstones of the Legion's soldiers in the area of Emmaus.[51](The village of Motza, located 30 stadia (c. 4 mi or 6 km) away from Jerusalem, is mentioned in medieval Greek manuscripts of the "Jewish war" of Josephus Flavius (7,6,6) under the name of Ammaus, apparently as a result of copyists' mistake).[52][53]

The ancient Christian tradition of theChurch fathers,as well as pilgrims to the Holy Land during the Roman-Byzantine period, unanimously recognized Nicopolis as the Emmaus in the Gospel of Luke (Origen(presumably), Eusebius of Caesarea,[54]St. Jerome,[55]Hesychius of Jerusalem,[56]Theophanes the Confessor,[57]Sozomen,[58]Theodosius,[59]etc.).

Al-Qubeiba/Castellum Emmaus/Chubebe/Qubaibat

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Another possibility is the village ofal-Qubeiba,west ofNabi Samwilon the Beit Horon road northwest of Jerusalem. The town, meaning "little domes" in Arabic, is located at about 65 stadia from Jerusalem. A Roman fort subsequently named Castellum Emmaus (from the Latin root castra, meaning encampment) was discovered at the site in 1099 by the Crusaders. However, there is no source from the Roman, Byzantine or Early Muslim periods naming it as "Emmaus" for the time of Jesus. WhetherJosephus(who puts Emmaus at a distance of thirtystadiafrom Jerusalem)[60]was referring to this place is now uncertain.[61]However, the Gospel of Luke speaks of 60 stadia[62](Luke 24:13), a distance very close to the actual 65 stadia to Qubeibeh.

In the 12th century, the Crusaders of theKingdom of Jerusalemcalled the site "Small Mahomeria", in order to distinguish it from the "Large Mahomeria"nearRamallah.Sounding similar to "Mahommed", the term was used in medieval times to describe a place inhabited or used for prayer by Muslims. It was referred to as Qubaibat for the first time at the end of that same century by the writerAbu Shama,who writes in hisBook of the Two Gardensabout a Muslim prince falling into the hands of the Crusaders at this spot. The Franciscans built a church here in 1902, on the ruins of a Crusader basilica.

During the Second World War, British authorities held Franciscans of Italian and German nationality at Emmaus-Qubeibeh. While there, Bellarmino Bagatticonducted excavations from 1940 to 1944 which revealed artifacts from the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and Crusader periods. Inspired by Bagatti's work,Virgilio Canio Corboalso undertook some experimental explorations.

Abu-Ghosh/Kiryat Anavim

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Main article:Benedictine monastery in Abu Ghosh
Further information:Abu Gosh

Abu Ghoshis located in the middle of the Kiryat Yearim Ridge Route between Nicopolis and Jerusalem, nine miles (83 stadia) from the capital. A former Minorite convent with a Gothic church was turned into a stable. Robinson dated it to theCrusaderperiod and declared it "more perfectly preserved than any other ancient church in Palestine." Excavations carried out in 1944 supported the identification with Fontenoid, a site the Crusaders held for a while to be Emmaus before accepting Nicopolis as the "real" Emmaus.

Emmaus/Colonia/Motza/Ammassa/Ammaous/Khirbet Mizza

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Colonia,between Abu Ghosh and Jerusalem on the Kiryat Yearim Ridge Route, is another possibility. At a distance of c. 8 km from Jerusalem, it was referred to asMozahin the Old Testament (Joshua 18:26). Listed among the Benjamite cities ofJoshua 18:26,it was referred to in the Talmud as a place where people would come to cut young willow branches as a part of the celebration ofSukkot(Mishnah,Sukkah4.5: 178). Motza was identified as the Emmaus of Luke in 1881 by William F. Birch (1840–1916) of thePalestine Exploration Fund,and again in 1893 by Paulo Savi.[63]One mile to the north of modern Motza is a ruin calledKhirbet Beit Mizza,which was identified by some scholars as the biblical Mozah, until recent excavations placed Mozah at Khirbet Mizza (without "Beit" ), as the ruins of Qalunya/Colonia are called in Arabic.[64]

Excavations in 2001-2003 headed by ProfessorCarsten Peter Thiedewere cut short by his sudden death in 2004. Thiede was a strong proponent of Motza as the real Emmaus. He offered that the LatinAmassaand the GreekAmmaousare derived from the biblical Hebrew name Motza: Motza – ha-Motza ( "ha" is the Hebrew equivalent of the definite article "the" ) – ha-Mosa – Amosa – Amaous – Emmaus. His excavation summaries were removed from the website of theBaselcollege he was teaching at, but a book and at least one article he published on the topic are available.[65][62][66]He contended that neither Nicopolis, Abu Ghosh, or Al-Qubeiba can be considered because the first was located too far from Jerusalem, while the two others were not called Emmaus at the time of Jesus.[67]

Josephus Flavius writes inAntiquities of the Jewsabout a city called Emmaus in the context of theMaccabean Revolt,which corresponds well with the large city later called Emmaus Nicopolis, located at over 170 Roman stadia from Jerusalem, while inThe Jewish Warhe brings up another Emmaus, just 30 Roman stadia from Jerusalem, whereVespasiansettled 800 Roman legionnaires after theFirst Jewish Revolt.[62][68]The ancient Latin manuscripts use "Amassa", while the medieval Greek manuscripts use "Ammaous".[citation needed]The newly createdRoman "colonia"soon made the old name disappear: even the Jewish works of the 3rd-5th centuries, theMishnah,theBabylonianand theJerusalem Talmud,talk about "Qeloniya", anAramaicdistortion of "colonia".[62]This name survived into modern times in Arabic as "Qalunya".[62]This was indeed always a village, not a city like Emmaus Nicopolis, and thus fits the description by Luke (κωμη "village" ) much better than the latter.[62]The difference in distance to Jerusalem between Luke's and Josephus' Emmaus, 60 vs. 30 stadia, is still much smaller than the one to Nicopolis, which lays fully 176 stadia down the Roman road from Jerusalem.[62]Thiede recalculated the actual distance between Jerusalem's western city gate at the time, and his excavation site at Motza which unearthed the Jewish village that predated the Roman veterans colony, and came up with a figure of 46 stadia.[62]That would put it squarely in the middle between Luke's and Josephus' stated distances, which Thiede considers a good approximation for the time.[62]Thiede's excavation produced Jewish artifacts of the time preceding thefall of Jerusalemin 70 CE, giving substance to his claim to have found Luke's Emmaus, which had necessarily to be settled by Jews.[62]With no other Emmaus in the vicinity of Jerusalem, Motza was thus the only credible candidate.[62]

Horvat 'Eqed

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Main article:Horvat 'Eqed

Horvat 'Eqed, situated on a hilltop 2 km east of Emmaus Nicopolis, is a recent candidate for the site of ancient Emmaus. This archaeological site features significant fortifications dating back to the second century BC, potentially attributed to theSeleucidgeneralBacchidesand reinforced during theBar Kokhba revolt,in the early 2nd century AD.[69][70]Discoveries at the site includeritual baths,ahiding systemused during the revolt, as well as various artifacts likeBar Kokhba coinageand weaponry.[71][69]

According to one theory, Emmaus was originally located at Horvat 'Eqed during the Hellenistic and early Roman periods, and was later abandoned in the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. The name Emmaus later transferred to the site of Emmaus Nicopolis, where the city was located in the Roman and Byzantine periods.[69]

Possible symbolic identification

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One of the oldest extant versions of the Gospel of Luke, preserved in theCodex Bezae,reads "Oulammaus" instead of Emmaus. InSeptuagint,theGreektranslation of theOld Testamentscriptures, Oulammaus was the place whereJacobwas visited by God in his dream, while sleeping on a rock.[72]However, Oulammaus was not a real place name but a translation mistake. The original name in Hebrew was "Luz". This mistake was later corrected, but was still there at the time when the Gospel was written around AD 100. Thus, a theory has been put forward,[73][74]that the story in the Gospel was merely symbolic, drawing a parallel between Jacob being visited by God and the disciples being visited by Jesus.

Contemporary use

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Emmaus, Pennsylvania,a township in theLehigh Valleyregion of the United States, draws its name from the Biblical references to Emmaus.

Notable residents

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See also

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References

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  1. ^Holy Bible: St. Luke 24: 13-35;Encyclopedia Judaica,Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972, "Emmaus," Vol. 6, pp. 726-727
  2. ^abSiméon Vailhé (1909)."Emmaus".The Catholic Encyclopedia.Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company.Retrieved11 April2015.
  3. ^"Bible Search: hamath".biblehub.net.RetrievedJune 14,2023.
  4. ^abc"Emmaus-Nicopolis".Community of the Beatitudes.2016.RetrievedApril 11,2016.
  5. ^'Emmaus,' in Geoffrey W. Bromiley (ed.),International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J,Wm.B. Eerdmanns Publishers 1995 p.77
  6. ^abcdSharon, 1997, p.80
  7. ^Esti Dvorjetski,Leisure, Pleasure and Healing: Spa Culture and Medicine in Ancient Eastern Mediterranean,BRILL, 2007 p.221.
  8. ^ab"Ayalon Canada Park – Biblical & Modern Israel".Forests, Parks and Sites.Jewish National Fund.2016.RetrievedApril 11,2016.
  9. ^Sozomen(1855).The Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen: Comprising a History of the Church from A.D. 324 to A.D. 440.Henry G. Bohn.ISBN9780790565682.OCLC78734887.,p.241 (239)
  10. ^Hooker, Morna D.(1991).A Commentary on the Gospel according to St. Mark.Black's New Testament commentaries. London: A & C Black.ISBN978-0-7136-3284-2.OCLC476570833.
  11. ^"Avondmaal in Emmaüs".lib.ugent.be.Retrieved2020-10-02.
  12. ^Chisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)."Emmaus".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 342.
  13. ^Reece, S. (June 14, 2002)."Seven Stades to Emmaus".New Testament Studies.48(2): 262–266.doi:10.1017/S0028688502000188.S2CID170756284.RetrievedJune 14,2023– via www.academia.edu.
  14. ^Robinson, E.;Smith, E.(1856).Later Biblical Researches in Palestine, and in the Adjacent Regions: A Journal of Travels in the year 1852.Boston; London:Crocker & Brewster.pp.146–150.OCLC7090106.
  15. ^Steve Mason, (ed.),Flavius Josephus: translation and Commentary,Flavius Josephus: Translation and Commentary. Judean war. Vol. 1B, BRILL, 2008 p.44 n.388.
  16. ^H. Guggenheimer, trans., Berlin-N.Y. 2001, p.609
  17. ^"Emmaus-Nicopolis".www.emmaus-nicopolis.org.RetrievedJune 14,2023.
  18. ^Thiedep. 55.
  19. ^seeJosephus Flavius,"The Jewish War" 3,3,5
  20. ^Hizmi, Hananya; Haber, Michal; Aharonvich, Evgeny (2013). "From the Maccabees to Bar Kokhba: Evidence of Fortification and Revolt at Khirbet el-'Aqd: The Results of the Renewed 2012 Excavations".New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem.7:6–24.
  21. ^"The Jewish War" 2, 4, 3; 2, 20, 4; 3, 3, 5; 4, 8, 1; 5, 1, 6; "The Antiquities of the Jews" 14, 11, 2; 14, 15, 7; 17, 10, 7–9
  22. ^"Antiquities of the Jews" 17, 10, 7–9
  23. ^Sharon, 1997,p.79
  24. ^Josephus,De Bello IudaicoBk 7,6:6.
  25. ^Günter Stemberger,'Jews and Graeco-Roman Culture:from Alexander to Theodosius 11,' in James K. Aitken, James Carleton Paget (eds.),The Jewish-Greek Tradition in Antiquity and the Byzantine Empire,Cambridge University Press, 2014 pp.15–36 p.29.
  26. ^Khalidi, W (1992).All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948.Washington D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies. p. 309.ISBN0-88728-224-5.
  27. ^"Emmaus - Nikopolis - Hasmonean period fortress".www.biblewalks.com.RetrievedJune 14,2023.
  28. ^William Adler, 'The Kingdom of Edessa and the Creation of a Christian Aristocracy,' in Natalie B. Dohrmann, Annette Yoshiko Reed (eds.),Jews, Christians, and the Roman Empire: The Poetics of Power in Late Antiquity,University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013 pp. 43–61 p.58.
  29. ^"Onomasticon," 90:15–17, a text written in 290–325 A.D., G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville, trans., Jerusalem, 2003
  30. ^Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 2, p.363
  31. ^Robinson and Smith, 1856, pp.146-148
  32. ^Brunot, S.J.C., Amedee.Mariam, The Little Arab(Third ed.). The Carmel of Maria Regina. p. 89.
  33. ^Jardine, R.F.; McArthur Davies, B.A. (1948).A Gazetteer of the Place Names which appear in the small-scale Maps of Palestine and Trans-Jordan.Jerusalem: Government of Palestine. p. 39.OCLC610327173.
  34. ^Rich Wiles,Behind the Wall: Life, Love, and Struggle in Palestine,Potomac Books, Inc., 2010, pp.17–24.
  35. ^Dvorjetski p.221.
  36. ^Rami Degani, Ruth Kark,'Christian and Messianic Jews' Communes in Israel:Past, Present and Future,' in Eliezer Ben-Rafael, Yaacov Oved, Menachem Topel (eds.)The Communal Idea in the 21st Century,BRILL, 2012, pp.221–239 p.236.
  37. ^Max Blumenthal,Goliath: Life and Loathing in Greater Israel,Nation Books,2014 p.185
  38. ^Adam LeBor,City of Oranges: Arabs and Jews in Jaffa,A&C Black, 2007 p.326.
  39. ^Ben-Yehuda, Nachman (1996).The Masada Myth: Collective Memory and Mythmaking in Israel.University of Wisconsin Press.pp. 159–160.
  40. ^"Yad La'Shyrion (Armored Corps) Museum".Archived fromthe originalon 5 May 2009.Retrieved2009-05-08.
  41. ^Vincent, Abel "Emmaüs", Paris, 1932
  42. ^Y. Hirschfeld, "A Hidraulic Installation in the Water-Supply System of Emmaus-Nicopolis", IEJ, 1978
  43. ^M. Gichon, "Roman Bath-houses in Eretz Israel", Qadmoniot 11, 1978
  44. ^K.-H. Fleckenstein, M. Louhivuori, R. Riesner, "Emmaus in Judäa", Giessen-Basel, 2003.ISBN3-7655-9811-9
  45. ^L844, L2211
  46. ^e.g.Codex Sangermanensis
  47. ^including the oldest of them, Codex Fuldensis
  48. ^PalestinianEvangeliary
  49. ^Lagrange,Wieland Willker (1921).A Textual Commentary on the Greek Gospels(PDF).Vol. 3. pp.617–618.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2014-09-03.Retrieved2014-08-28.
  50. ^Strack, Billerbeck, "Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud & Midrasch", vol II, München, 1924,1989, p.p. 269-271.ISBN3-406-02725-3
  51. ^See: P. M. Séjourné, "Nouvelles de Jérusalem", RB 1897, p. 131; E. Michon, "Inscription d'Amwas", RB 1898, p. 269-271; J. H. Landau, "Two Inscribed Tombstones", "Atiqot", vol. XI, Jerusalem, 1976.
  52. ^Robinson and Smith, 1856, p.149
  53. ^Schlatter, 1896, p.222;Vincent & Abel, 1932, pp.284–285
  54. ^"Onomasticon"
  55. ^Letter 108, PL XXII, 833 and other texts
  56. ^Quaestiones », PG XCIII, 1444
  57. ^"Chronografia", PG CVIII, 160
  58. ^"Ecclesiastical History", PG LXVII, 180
  59. ^"De situ Terrae sanctae", 139
  60. ^Josephus,The Jewish War7.6.6.(Greek text)
  61. ^William Whiston,the translator of Josephus' works into English, thought that Josephus' figure for Emmaus was in error, where the original Greek text writes: "He (Caesar Vespasian) assigned a place for eight hundred men only, whom he had dismissed from his army, which he gave them for their habitation; it is called Emmaus, and is distant from Jerusalemthirtystadia."(See Greek text:... ὃ καλεῖται μὲν Ἀμμαοῦς, ἀπέχει δὲ τῶν Ἱεροσολύμων σταδίους τριάκοντα). In most English editions of Josephus'The Jewish War7.216, the text has been amended to read "...Emmaus, and is distant from Jerusalemthreescore(sixty)stadia."See The Jewish War (William Whiston (ed.), 7.216 (note 2).
  62. ^abcdefghijkThiede, Carsten Peter(2005)."Die Wiederentdeckung von Emmaus bei Jerusalem"[Rediscovering Emmaus near Jerusalem].Zeitschrift für antikes Christentum.Offprint(in German).8(3). Walter de Gruyter: 593–599 [593].doi:10.1515/zach.2005.8.3.593.S2CID170175267.Archived fromthe originalon 31 October 2014.Retrieved11 April2015.
  63. ^W. F. Birch, "Emmaus", Palestine Exploration Fund, Quarterly Statement 13 (1881), pp. 237-38; Paulo Savi, "Emmaus",Revue Biblique2 (1893), pp. 223-27.
  64. ^Finkelstein, Israel;Gadot, Yuval (2015)."Mozah, Nephtoah and royal estates in the Jerusalem highlands".Semitica et Classica. International Journal of Oriental and Mediterranean Studies.VIII.Brepols:227–234 [227–8].Retrieved24 May2018– via academia.edu.
  65. ^Thiede, Carsten Peter."Ausgrabung einer jüdisch-römischen Siedlung aus biblischen Zeiten in Israel: Emmaus (Moza / Colonia)"(PDF).Staatsunabhängige Theologische Hochschule Basel (STH). Archived fromthe original(PDF)on May 21, 2005.Retrieved27 August2005.
  66. ^abThiede, Carsten Peter(2006).The Emmaus Mystery: Discovering Evidence for the Risen Christ.Bloomsbury Academic. p.184.ISBN978-0-8264-8067-5– via Google Books.…the biblical history of Moza, the Christian history of Emmaus, and the Jewish history of the Mishnaic period met at this site.
  67. ^"Lokalisierung des neutestamentlichen Emmaus"[Identification of New Testament-era Emmaus].Geistige Nahrung Dein Forum(in German). Archived fromthe originalon 2015-09-24.Retrieved2015-04-12.
  68. ^Josephus."Chapter 6".The Jewish War.Vol. 7. Translated by William Whiston. Paragraph 6 – viaWikisource.
  69. ^abcHizmi, Hananya; Haber, Michal; Aharonvich, Evgeny (2013). "From the Maccabees to Bar Kokhba: Evidence of Fortification and Revolt at Khirbet el-'Aqd: The Results of the Renewed 2012 Excavations".New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem.7:6–24.
  70. ^Gichon, M. (1981). "Kh. 'Aqd".Hadashot Arkheologiyot.76:28.
  71. ^Gichon, Mordechai; Vitale, Michaela (1991)."Arrow-Heads from Ḥorvat 'Eqed".Israel Exploration Journal.41(4): 242–257.ISSN0021-2059.
  72. ^SeeGenesis 28:10–19.
  73. ^Read-Heimerdinger, Jenny (1999)."Where is Emmaus? Clues in the Text of Luke 24 in Codex Bezae".In Taylor, D.G.K. (ed.).Studies in the Early Text of the Gospels and Acts.Birmingham University Press. pp. 229–44.ISBN978-1-902459-03-5.OCLC464435795– via Google Books.
  74. ^Read-Heimerdinger, Jenny; Rius-Camps, Josep (2002)."Emmaous or Oulammaous? Luke's Use of the Jewish Scriptures in the Text of Luke 24 in Codex Bezae".Revista Catalana de Teologia.27(1): 23–42 – via Revistes Catalanes amb Accés Obert (RACO).

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