Anessential oilis a concentratedhydrophobicliquid containingvolatile(easily evaporated at normal temperatures)chemical compoundsfromplants.Essential oils are also known asvolatile oils,ethereal oils,aetheroleum,or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such asoil of clove.An essentialoilis essential in the sense that it contains the essence of the plant'sfragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived.[1]The term "essential" used here doesnotmean indispensable or usable by the human body, as with the termsessential amino acidoressential fatty acid,which are so called because they are nutritionally required by a living organism.[2]
Essential oils are generally extracted bydistillation,oftenby using steam.Other processes includeexpression,solvent extraction,sfumatura,absoluteoil extraction, resin tapping, wax embedding, and cold pressing. They are used inperfumes,cosmetics,soaps,air freshenersand other products, forflavoringfood and drink, and for adding scents toincenseand household cleaning products.
Essential oils are often used foraromatherapy,a form ofalternative medicinein which healing effects are ascribed to aromatic compounds. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that it can effectively treat any condition.[3]Improper use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions, inflammation and skin irritation. Children may be particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of improper use.[4][5]Essential oils can be poisonous if ingested or absorbed through the skin.[5]
Production
editDistillation
editMost common essential oils such aslavender,peppermint,tea tree oil,patchouli,andeucalyptusare distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of theflowers,leaves,wood,bark,roots,seeds,orpeel,is put into analembic(distillation apparatus) over water. As the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil, where they condense back to liquid, which is then collected in the receiving vessel.
Most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception isylang-ylang(Cananga odorata) which is purified through afractional distillation.
The recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat,herbal distillate,or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Hydrosols includerose water,lavenderwater,lemon balm,clary sage,andorange blossom water.
Expression
editMostcitruspeel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed (similar toolive oil extraction).[6]Due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained asbyproductsof the citrus industry.
Before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing.[7]
Solvent extraction
editMost flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression, but their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by the high heat used in steam distillation. Instead, asolventsuch ashexaneorsupercritical carbon dioxideis used to extract the oils.[8]Extracts fromhexaneand other hydrophobic solvents are calledconcretes,which are a mixture of essential oil,waxes,resins,and otherlipophilic(oil-soluble) plant material.
Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of non-fragrant waxes and resins. Often, another solvent, such asethyl alcohol,is used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol solution is chilled to −18 °C (0 °F) for more than 48 hours which causes thewaxesandlipidsto precipitate out. The precipitates are then filtered out and the ethanol is removed from the remaining solution by evaporation, vacuum purge, or both, leaving behind theabsolute.
Supercritical carbon dioxide is used as a solvent insupercritical fluidextraction. This method can avoidpetrochemicalresidues in the product and the loss of some "top notes" when steam distillation is used. It does not yield an absolute directly. The supercritical carbon dioxide will extract both the waxes and the essential oils that make up the concrete. Subsequent processing with liquid carbon dioxide, achieved in the same extractor by merely lowering the extraction temperature, will separate the waxes from the essential oils. This lower temperature process prevents the decomposition and denaturing of compounds. When the extraction is complete, the pressure is reduced to ambient and the carbon dioxide reverts to a gas, leaving no residue.
Production quantities
editEstimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990, and 1994 from various sources, gives the following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced.[9]
Oil Tonnes Sweet orange 12,000 Mentha arvensis 4,800 Peppermint 3,200 Cedarwood 2,600 Lemon 2,300 Eucalyptus globulus 2,070 Litsea cubeba 2,000 Clove(leaf) 2,000 Spearmint 1,300
Uses and cautions
editThis sectionneeds morereliable medical referencesforverificationor relies too heavily onprimary sources.(September 2010) |  |
Taken by mouth, many essential oils can be dangerous in high concentrations. Typical effects begin with a burning feeling, followed by salivation.[10]Different essential oils may have drastically different pharmacology. Some act as local anestheticcounterirritantsand, thereby, exert anantitussive(cough suppressing) effect.[10][11]Many essential oils, particularlytea tree oil,may causecontact dermatitis.[12][13][14][15]Menthol and some others produce a feeling of cold followed by a sense of burning.
In Australia essential oils (mainly eucalyptus) have been increasingly causing cases of poisoning, mostly of children. In the period 2014–2018, there were 4,412 poisoning incidents reported inNew South Wales.[16]
Use in aromatherapy
edit
Aromatherapy is a form ofalternative medicinein which healing effects are ascribed to the aromatic compounds in essential oils and other plant extracts. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition.[3]Scientific research indicates that essential oils cannot treat or cure any chronic disease or other illnesses.[3]Much of the research on the use of essential oils for health purposes has serious methodological errors. In a systemic review of 201 published studies on essential oils as alternative medicines, only 10 were found to be of acceptable methodological quality, and even these 10 were still weak in reference to scientific standards.[3]Use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation; After receiving a facial at an all-natural salon, a person experienced severe skin irritation, which highlighted the potential dangers of using "clean" beauty products marketed as being made from natural ingredients. This incident underscores the misconception that natural compounds are always safe, revealing a growing awareness within the beauty industry about the risks associated with essential oils, which can lead to allergic reactions and skin damage;[18]there has been at least one case of death.[4]
Use as pesticide
editResearch has shown that some essential oils have potential as a naturalpesticide.In case studies, certain oils have been shown to have a variety of deterring effects on pests, specifically insects and select arthropods.[19]These effects may include repelling, inhibiting digestion, stunting growth,[20]decreasing rate of reproduction, or death of pests that consume the oil. However, the molecules within the oils that cause these effects are normally non-toxic for mammals. These specific actions of the molecules allow for widespread use of these "green" pesticides without harmful effects to anything else other than pests.[21]Essential oils that have been investigated include rose, lemon grass, lavender, thyme, peppermint, basil, cedarwood, and eucalyptus.[22]
Although they may not be the perfect replacement for all synthetic pesticides, essential oils have prospects for crop or indoor plant protection, urban pest control,[23]and marketed insect repellents, such as bug spray. Certain essential oils have been shown in studies to be comparable, if not exceeding, in effectiveness toDEET,which is currently marketed as the most effective mosquito repellent. Although essential oils are effective as pesticides when first applied in uses such as mosquito repellent applied to the skin, it is only effective in the vapor stage. Since this stage is relatively short-lived, creams and polymer mixtures are used in order to elongate the vapor period of effective repellency.[19]
In any form, using essential oils as green pesticides rather than synthetic pesticides has ecological benefits such as decreased residual actions.[22]In addition, increased use of essential oils as pest control could have not only ecological, but economical benefits as the essential oil market diversifies[21]and popularity increases among organic farmers and environmentally conscious consumers.[20]As of 2012[update]some EOs are authorized, and in use, in theEuropean Union:Melaleucaoil as afungicide,citronella oilas aherbicide,Syzygium aromaticumoil as a fungicide and bactericide,Mentha spicataoil as aplant growth regulator;Citrus sinensisoil (only in France) forBemisia tabacionCucurbita pepoandTrialeurodes vaporariorumonSolanum lycopersicum;and approvals for oils ofThymus,C. sinensis,andTagetesas insecticides are pending.[20]
Use in food
editThe examples and perspective in this articlemay not represent aworldwide viewof the subject.(June 2024) |
In relation with their food applications, although these oils have been used throughout history as food preservatives, it was in the 20th century when essential oils were considered asGenerally Recognized as Safe(GRAS) by the United States’Food and Drug Administration(FDA).[24]
GRAS substances according to the FDA[25]
| Common name | Botanical name of plant source |
|---|---|
| Alfalfa | Medicago sativaL. |
| Allspice | Pimenta officinalisLindl. |
| Bitter almond,free from cyanide[26] | Prunus amygdalusBatsch,Prunus armeniacaL., orPrunus persica(L.) Batsch. |
| Ambrette(seed) | Hibiscus moschatus Moench. |
| Angelica root | Angelica archangelicaL. |
| Angelica seed | |
| Angelica stem | |
| Angostura(cuspariabark) | Galipea officinalisHancock,Angostura trifoliata |
| Anise | Pimpinella anisumL. |
| Asafetida | Ferula assa-foetidaL. and related spp. ofFerula |
| Balm (lemon balm) | Melissa officinalisL. |
| Balsam of Peru | Myroxylon pereiraeKlotzsch. |
| Basil | Ocimum basilicumL. |
| Bay leaves | Laurus nobilisL. |
| Bay (myrcia oil) | Pimenta racemosa(Mill.) J. W. Moore. |
| Bergamot(bergamot orange) | Citrus aurantiumL. subsp.bergamiaWright et Arn. |
| Bitter almond(free from prussic acid) | Prunus amygdalusBatsch,Prunus armeniacaL., orPrunus persica(L.) Batsch. |
| Bois de rose | Aniba rosaeodoraDucke. |
| Cacao | Theobroma cacaoL. |
| Camomile (chamomile) flowers,German or Hungarian | Matricaria chamomillaL. |
| Camomile (chamomile) flowers,Roman or English | Anthemis nobilisL. |
| Cananga | Cananga odorataHook. f. and Thoms. |
| Capsicum | Capsicum frutescensL. andCapsicum annuumL. |
| Caraway | Carum carviL. |
| Cardamom seed(cardamon) | Elettaria cardamomumMaton. |
| Carob bean | Ceratonia siliquaL. |
| Carrot | Daucus carotaL. |
| Cascarilla bark | Croton eluteriaBenn. |
| Cassia bark, Chinese | Cinnamomum cassiaBlume. |
| Cassia bark, Padang or Batavia | Cinnamomum burmanniBlume. |
| Cassia bark, Saigon | Cinnamomum loureiriiNees. |
| Celery seed | Apium graveolensL. |
| Cherry, wild,bark | Prunus serotinaEhrh. |
| Chervil | Anthriscus cerefolium(L.) Hoffm. |
| Chicory | Cichorium intybusL. |
| Cinnamon bark, Ceylon | Cinnamomum zeylanicumNees. |
| Cinnamon bark, Chinese | Cinnamomum cassiaBlume. |
| Cinnamon bark, Saigon | Cinnamomum loureiriiNees. |
| Cinnamon leaf, Ceylon | Cinnamomum zeylanicumNees. |
| Cinnamon leaf,Chinese | Cinnamomum cassiaBlume. |
| Cinnamon leaf,Saigon | Cinnamomum loureiriiNees. |
| Citronella | Cymbopogon nardusRendle. |
| Citrus peels | Citrusspp. |
| Clary(clary sage) | Salvia sclareaL. |
| Clover | Trifoliumspp. |
| Coca(decocainized) | Erythroxylum cocaLam. and other spp. ofErythroxylum |
| Coffee | Coffeaspp. |
| Cola nut | Cola acuminataSchott and Endl., and other spp. ofCola |
| Coriander | Coriandrum sativumL. |
| Cumin(cummin) | Cuminum cyminumL. |
| Curaçao orange peel(orange, bitter peel) | Citrus aurantiumL. |
| Cuspariabark | Galipea officinalisHancock |
| Dandelion | Taraxacum officinaleWeber andTaraxacum laevigatumDC. |
| Dandelion root | |
| Dog grass (quackgrass, triticum) | Agropyron repens(L.) Beauv. |
| Elder flowers | Sambucus canadensisL. andSambucus nigraI. |
| Estragole(esdragol, esdragon, tarragon) | Artemisia dracunculusL. |
| Estragon (tarragon) | |
| Fennel,sweet | Foeniculum vulgareMill. |
| Fenugreek | Trigonella foenum-graecumL. |
| Galanga(galangal) | Alpinia officinarumHance. |
| Geranium | Pelargoniumspp. |
| Geranium, East Indian | Cymbopogon martiniStapf. |
| Geranium, rose | Pelargonium graveolensL'Her. |
| Ginger | Zingiber officinaleRosc. |
| Grapefruit | Citrus paradisiMacf. |
| Guava | Psidiumspp. |
| Hickorybark | Caryaspp. |
| Horehound (hoarhound) | Marrubium vulgareL. |
| Hops | Humulus lupulusL. |
| Horsemint | Monarda punctataL. |
| Hyssop | Hyssopus officinalisL. |
| Immortelle | Helichrysum augustifoliumDC. |
| Jasmine | Jasminum officinaleL. and other spp. ofJasminum |
| Juniper(berries) | Juniperus communisL. |
| Kola nut | Cola acuminataSchott and Endl., and other spp. ofCola |
| Laurel berries | Laurus nobilisL. |
| Laurel leaves | Laurusspp. |
| Lavender | Lavandula officinalisChaix |
| Lavender, spike | Lavandula latifoliaVill. |
| Lavandin | Hybrids betweenLavandula officinalisChaix andLavandula latifolinVill. |
| Lemon | Citrus limon(L.) Burm. f. |
| Lemon balm (see balm) | Melissa officinalisL. |
| Lemongrass | Cymbopogon citratusDC. andCymbopogon lexuosusStapf. |
| Lemon peel | Citrus limon(L.) Burm. f. |
| Lime | Citrus aurantifoliaSwingle. |
| Lindenflowers | Tiliaspp. |
| Locust bean | Ceratonia siliquaL, |
| Lupulin | Humulus lupulusL. |
| Mace | Myristica fragransHoutt. |
| Mandarin | Citrus reticulataBlanco. |
| Marjoram,sweet | Majorana hortensisMoench. |
| Mate, yerba | Ilex paraguariensisSt. Hil. |
| Melissa (see balm) | |
| Menthol | Menthaspp. |
| Menthyl acetate | |
| Molasses(extract) | Saccharum officinarumL. |
| Mustard | Brassicaspp. |
| Naringin | Citrus paradisiMacf. |
| Neroli, bigarade | Citrus aurantiumL. |
| Nutmeg | Myristica fragransHoutt. |
| Onion | Allium cepaL. |
| Orange, bitter, flowers | Citrus aurantiumL. |
| Orange, bitter, peel | |
| Orange leaf | Citrus sinensis(L.) Osbeck. |
| Orange, sweet | |
| Orange, sweet, flowers | |
| Orange, sweet, peel | |
| Origanum | Origanumspp. |
| Palmarosa | Cymbopogon martiniStapf. |
| Paprika | Capsicum annuumL. |
| Parsley | Petroselinum crispum(Mill.) Mansf. |
| Pepper, black | Piper nigrumL. |
| Pepper, white | |
| Peppermint | Mentha piperitaL. |
| Peruvian balsam | Myroxylon pereiraeKlotzsch. |
| Petitgrain | Citrus aurantiumL. |
| Petitgrain lemon | Citrus limon(L.) Burm. f. |
| Petitgrain mandarin or tangerine | Citrus reticulataBlanco. |
| Pimenta | Pimenta officinalisLindl. |
| Pimenta leaf | |
| Pipsissewa leaves | Chimaphila umbellataNutt. |
| Pomegranate | Punica granatumL. |
| Prickly ash bark | Xanthoxylum(orZanthoxylum)americanumMill. orXanthoxylum clava-herculisL. |
| Roseabsolute | Rosa albaL.,Rosa centifoliaL.,Rosa damascenaMill.,Rosa gallicaL., and vars. of these spp. |
| Rose (otto of roses, attar of roses) | |
| Rose buds | |
| Rose flowers | |
| Rose fruit (hips) | |
| Rose geranium | Pelargonium graveolensL'Her. |
| Rose leaves | Rosaspp. |
| Rosemary | Rosmarinus officinalisL. |
| Saffron | Crocus sativusL. |
| Sage | Salvia officinalisL. |
| Sage,Greek | Salvia trilobaL. |
| Sage, Spanish | Salvia officinalissubsp.lavandulifolia(Vahl) Gams |
| St. John's bread | Ceratonia siliquaL. |
| Savory, summer | Satureia hortensisL. |
| Savory,winter | Satureia montanaL. |
| Schinus molle | Schinus molleL. |
| Sloe berries(blackthorn berries) | Prunus spinosaL. |
| Spearmint | Mentha spicataL. |
| Spike lavender | Lavandula latifoliaVill. |
| Tamarind | Tamarindus indicaL. |
| Tangerine | Citrus reticulataBlanco. |
| Tarragon | Artemisia dracunculusL. |
| Tea | Thea sinensisL. |
| Thyme | Thymus vulgarisL. andThymus zygisvar.gracilisBoiss. |
| Thyme,white | |
| Thyme,wild or creeping | Thymus serpyllumL. |
| Triticum(see dog grass) | Elymus repens |
| Tuberose | Polianthes tuberosaL. |
| Turmeric | Curcuma longaL. |
| Vanilla | Vanilla planifoliaAndr. orVanilla tahitensisJ. W. Moore. |
| Violet flowers | Viola odorataL. |
| Violet leaves | |
| Violet leaves absolute | |
| Wild cherry bark | Prunus serotinaEhrh. |
| Ylang-ylang | Cananga odorataHook. f. and Thoms. |
| Zedoary bark | Curcuma zedoariaRosc. |
As antimicrobials
editThe most commonly used essential oils with antimicrobial action are:β-caryophyllene,eugenol,eugenol acetate,carvacrol,linalool,thymol,geraniol,geranyl acetate,bicyclogermacrene,cinnamaldehyde,geranial,neral,1,8-cineole,methyl chavicol,methyl cinnamate,methyl eugenol,camphor,α-thujone,viridiflorol,limonene,(Z)-linalool oxide,α-pinene,p-cymene,(E)-caryophyllene,γ-terpinene.[27]
Some essential oils are effectiveantimicrobialsand have been evaluated for food incorporationin vitro.However, actual deployment is rare because much higher concentrations are required in real foods. Some or all of this lower effectiveness is due to large differences betweenculture mediumand foods in chemistry (especially lipid content), viscosity, and duration of inoculation/storage.[27]
Dilution
editEssential oils are usuallylipophilic(literally:"oil-loving") compounds that are immiscible (notmiscible) with water. They can be diluted insolventslike pureethanolandpolyethylene glycol.[citation needed]
Raw materials
editEssential oils are derived from sections of plants. Some plants, like thebitter orange,are sources of several types of essential oil.
- Cannabis
- Chamomile
- Clary sage
- Clove
- Hops
- Hyssop
- Jasmine
- Lavender
- Manuka
- Marjoram
- Orange
- Pelargonium(Scented geranium)
- Plumeria
- Rose
- Ylang-ylang
Balsam of Peru
editBalsam of Peru,an essential oil derived fromMyroxylonplants, is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in animal care products.[28]However, national and international surveys identified balsam of Peru among the "top five" allergens most commonly causingpatch testallergic reactions in people referred todermatologyclinics.[29][30][31]
Garlic oil
editGarlic oilis an essential oil derived fromgarlic.[32]
Eucalyptus oil
editMost eucalyptus oil on the market is produced from the leaves ofEucalyptus globulus.Steam-distilled eucalyptus oil is used throughout Asia, Africa, Latin America and South America as a primary cleaning/disinfecting agent added to soaped mop and countertop cleaning solutions; it also possesses insect and limited vermin control properties.[33]Note, however, there are hundreds of species of eucalyptus, and perhaps some dozens are used to various extents as sources of essential oils. Not only do the products of different species differ greatly in characteristics and effects, but also the products of the very same tree can vary grossly.[34]
Lavender oil
edit
Lavender oil has long been used in the production ofperfume.[35]However, studies have shown it can be estrogenic and antiandrogenic, causing problems for prepubescent boys and pregnant women, in particular.[36]Lavender essential oil is also used as an insect repellent.[37]
Rose oil
editRose oilis produced from the petals ofRosa damascenaandRosa centifolia.Steam-distilled rose oil is known as "rose otto", while the solvent extracted product is known as "rose absolute".
Toxicity
editThe potentialtoxicityof essential oil is related to its level or grade of purity, and to the toxicity of specific chemical components of the oil.[5]Many essential oils are designed exclusively for their aroma-therapeutic quality; these essential oils generally should not be applied directly to the skin in their undiluted form.[5]Some can cause severe irritation, provoke anallergic reactionand, over time, provetoxic to the liver.If ingested or rubbed into the skin, essential oils can be highly poisonous, causing confusion, choking, loss of muscle coordination, difficulty in breathing,pneumonia,seizures,and possibly severe allergic reactions orcoma.[5]
Some essential oils, including many of thecitrus peeloils, arephotosensitizers,increasing vulnerability of the skin to sunlight.[38]
Industrial users of essential oils should consult thesafety data sheetsto determine the hazards and handling requirements of particular oils.[5]Even certain therapeutic-grade oils can pose potential threats to individuals with epilepsy or pregnant women.
Essential oil use in children can pose a danger when misused because of their thin skin and immature livers. This might cause them to be more susceptible to toxic effects than adults.[5]
Flammability
editTheflash pointof each essential oil is different. Many of the common essential oils, such as tea tree, lavender, and citrus oils, are classed asClass 3 Flammable Liquids,as they have a flash point of 50–60 °C.
Gynecomastia
editEstrogenicandantiandrogenicactivity have been reported byin vitrostudy oftea tree oilandlavenderessential oils. Two published sets of case reports suggest that lavender oil may be implicated in some cases ofgynecomastia,an abnormal breast tissue growth in prepubescent boys.[39][40]The European Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety dismissed the claims against tea tree oil as implausible, but did not comment on lavender oil.[41]In 2018, aBBCreport on a study stated that tea tree and lavender oils contain eight substances that when tested in tissue culture experiments, increasing the level ofestrogenand decreasing the level oftestosterone.Some of the substances are found in "at least 65 other essential oils". The study did not include animal or human testing.[42]
Handling
editExposure to essential oils may causecontact dermatitis.[13][14][15]Essential oils can be aggressive toward rubbers and plastics, so care must be taken in choosing the correct handling equipment. Glass syringes are often used, but have coarse volumetric graduations.Chemistry syringesare ideal, as they resist essential oils, are long enough to enter deep vessels, and have fine graduations, facilitating quality control. Unlike traditional pipettes, which have difficulty handling viscous fluids, the chemistry syringe, also known as a positive displacement pipette, has a seal and piston arrangement which slides inside the pipette, wiping the essential oil off the pipette wall.
Ingestion
editSome essential oils qualify asGRASflavoring agents for use in foods, beverages, and confectioneries according to strictgood manufacturing practiceandflavoriststandards.[25]Pharmacopoeiastandards for medicinal oils should be heeded. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, cats in particular.[43]The internal use of essential oils can pose hazards to pregnant women, as some can beabortifacientsin dose 0.5–10 mL, and thus should not be used during pregnancy.[citation needed]
Pesticide residues
editConcern aboutpesticideresidues in essential oils, particularly those used therapeutically, means many practitioners of aromatherapy buyorganicallyproduced oils. Not only are pesticides present in trace quantities, but also the oils themselves are used in tiny quantities and usually in high dilutions. Where there is a concern about pesticide residues in food essential oils, such as mint or orange oils, the proper criterion is not solely whether the material is organically produced, but whether it meets the government standards based on actual analysis of its pesticide content.[44]
Pregnancy
editSome essential oils may contain impurities and additives that may be harmful to pregnant women.[45]Certain essential oils are safe to use duringpregnancy,but care must be taken when selecting quality and brand. Sensitivity to certain smells may cause pregnant women to have adverse side effects with essential oil use, such as headache,vertigo,and nausea. Pregnant women often report an abnormal sensitivity to smells and taste,[46]and essential oils can cause irritation and nausea when ingested.[5]
Toxicology
editThe following table lists theLD50or median lethal dose for common oils; this is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested animal population. LD50is intended as a guideline only, and reported values can vary widely due to differences in tested species and testing conditions.[47]
| Common Name | Oral LD50 | Dermal LD50 | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Neem | 14 g/kg | >2 g/kg | |
| Lemon myrtle | 2.43 g/kg | 2.25 g/kg | |
| Frankincense | >5 g/kg | >5 g/kg | Boswellia carterii |
| Frankincense | >2 g/kg | >2 g/kg | Boswellia sacra |
| Indian frankincense | >2 g/kg | >2 g/kg | Boswellia serrata |
| Ylang-ylang | >5 g/kg | >5 g/kg | |
| Cedarwood | >5 g/kg | >5 g/kg | |
| Roman chamomile | >5 g/kg | >5 g/kg | |
| White camphor | >5 g/kg | >5 g/kg | Cinnamomum camphora,extracted from leaves |
| Yellow camphor | 3.73 g/kg | >5 g/kg | Cinnamomum camphora,extracted from bark |
| Hot oil | 3.80 g/kg | >5 g/kg | Cinnamomum camphora,oil extracted from leaves |
| Cassia | 2.80 g/kg | 0.32 g/kg |
Standardization of derived products
editIn 2002,ISOpublished ISO 4720 in which thebotanical namesof the relevant plants are standardized.[48]The rest of the standards with regards to this topic can be found in the section of ICS 71.100.60[49]
History
editThis sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(November 2021) |
The resins of aromatics and plant extracts were retained to producetraditional medicinesand scented preparations, such as perfumes and incense, includingfrankincense,myrrh,cedarwood, juniper berry and cinnamon in ancient Egypt may have contained essential oils.[50][51]In 1923, when archaeologists opened PharaohTutankhamun’s tomb, they found 50 alabaster jars of essential oils.[51][dubious–discuss]
Essential oils have been used infolk medicineover centuries. The Persian physicianIbn Sina,known as Avicenna in Europe, was first to derive the fragrance of flowers from distillation,[52]while the earliest recorded mention of the techniques and methods used to produce essential oils may beIbn al-Baitar(1188–1248), anArabAl-Andalusian(Muslim Spain)physician,pharmacistandchemist.[53]
Rather than refer to essential oils themselves, modern works typically discuss specific chemical compounds of which the essential oils are composed, such as referring tomethyl salicylaterather than "oil of wintergreen".[54][55]
Essential oils are used inaromatherapy,a branch ofalternative medicinethat uses essential oils and other aromatic compounds.[56]Oils are volatilized, diluted in acarrier oiland used in massage, diffused in the air by anebulizeror diffuser, heated over a candle flame, or burned as incense.
See also
edit
References
edit- ^"essential oil".Oxford English Dictionary(online, American English ed.). Archived fromthe originalon 2014-08-09.Retrieved2014-07-21.
- ^Reeds PJ (2000)."Dispensable and indispensable amino acids for humans".The Journal of Nutrition.130(7): 1835S–40S.doi:10.1093/jn/130.7.1835S.PMID10867060.
- ^abcdLee MS, Choi JC (2012). "Aromatherapy for health care: an overview of systematic reviews".Maturitas.3(71): 257–260.doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.12.018.PMID22285469.
- ^abPosadzki P, Alotaibi A, Ernst E (2012). "Adverse effects of aromatherapy: A systematic review of case reports and case series".The International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine.24(3): 147–61.doi:10.3233/JRS-2012-0568.PMID22936057.
- ^abcdefgh"Essential oils: Poisonous when misused".US National Capital Poison Center.Retrieved2017-12-01.
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Further reading
edit- Baser, K.H.C., G. Buchbauer (2010).Handbook of Essential Oils: Science, Technology and Applications.CRC Press, Boca Raton, London, New York.ISBN978-1-4200-6315-8.
- Schnaubelt, Kurt (1999).Advanced Aromatherapy: The Science of Essential Oil Therapy.Healing Arts Press.ISBN978-0-89281-743-6.
- Sellar, Wanda (2001).The Directory of Essential Oils(Reprint ed.). Essex: The C.W. Daniel Company, Ltd.ISBN978-0-85207-346-9.
- Tisserand, Robert (1995).Essential Oil Safety: A Guide for Health Care Professionals.Churchill Livingstone.ISBN978-0-443-05260-6.
- Rimal V, Shishodia S, Srivastava PK, Gupta S, Mallick AI (2021). "Synthesis and characterization of Indian essential oil Carbon Dots for interdisciplinary applications".Applied Nanoscience.11(4): 1225–1239.Bibcode:2021ApNan..11.1225R.doi:10.1007/s13204-021-01737-3.ISSN2190-5509.S2CID232145772.