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Flavoring

(Redirected fromFlavoring agent)
This article is about flavorings in food. For flavor as the perception of an aroma or odor, seeTaste.

Aflavoring(orflavouring),[a]also known asflavor(orflavour) orflavorant,is afood additiveused to improve thetasteorsmellof food. It changes theperceptualimpression offoodas determined primarily by thechemoreceptorsof thegustatoryandolfactory systems.[1][2]Along with additives, other components like sugars determine the taste of food.

A flavoring

A flavoring is defined as a substance that gives another substance taste, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to becomesweet,sour,tangy,etc. Although the term, in common language, denotes the combined chemical sensations of taste and smell, the same term is used in the fragrance and flavors industry to refer to edible chemicals and extracts that alter the flavor of food and food products through the sense of smell.

Owing to the high cost, or unavailability of natural flavor extracts, most commercial flavorings are "nature-identical", which means that they are thechemicalequivalent of natural flavors, but chemically synthesized rather than being extracted from source materials. Identification of components of natural foods, for example a raspberry, may be done using technology such asheadspace techniques,so the flavorist can imitate the flavor by using a few of the same chemicals present. In the EU legislation, the term "natural-identical flavoring" does not exist. The legislation is specified on what is a "flavoring" and a "natural flavoring".

Definition

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A flavoring is avolatileadditive that improves the taste or smell of food. They work primarily via thesense of smell.In legislation, substances that exclusively have a sweet, sour or salty taste are not considered flavorings. These usually includeflavor enhancers,sweeteners,acidulantsandsalt substitutes.

There are different ways to divide flavorings. First by the way they are produced. A vanilla flavoring can for example be obtained naturally by extraction fromvanillaseeds, or one can start with cheap chemicals and try to make a similar substance artificially (in this examplevanillin). A nature-identical flavoring is chemically an exact copy of the original substance and can be either natural or artificial.[3]Vanillin is not obtained from the vanilla plant nor an exact copy of vanilla, but a synthesized nature-identical component of the vanilla aroma. Vanillin is not vanilla, but gives a food a vanilla aroma.

The second division is by the effect they have on smell (aroma) or taste of the food. The effect can be the aroma of a specificfruit,almond,butter,smoke from wood,or some fantasy flavor. The aroma of the flavoring may resemble that of the source, or imitate a particular unrelated food. It may for example be the extract from vanilla seeds and smell like vanilla, or it may be the extract of a potato and smell like a banana. Irrespective of the effect, the flavoring may be natural or artificial. It may for example be the natural tissue of an animal with the aroma of a citrus, or just a chemical that smells like a citrus.

Division by production method

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Flavorings can be divided into three principal types: "natural flavorings", "nature-identical flavorings", and "artificial flavorings".[3]In the United States, they are traditionally divided into natural and artificial flavorings, where the latter includes nature-identical flavorings.[4]In contrast, European legislation does not distinguish natural and nature-identical flavorings, while only the term "natural" is subject to some regulation.

Natural flavorings

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Natural flavorings are ediblearoma compoundsthat are found innature,notmade by man. In nature, they always occur with other natural substances that also may be flavorings. By means of non-chemical technology, natural flavorings can be isolated on industrial scale, to be used as an additive.

Techniques to obtain natural flavorings include the use ofenzymesand/ormicro organisms.European legislators have accepted flavorings produced by manmadegenetically modified organisms(GMO's) – not found in nature – as natural flavorings.

Nature-identical flavorings

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Nature-identical flavorings are human-made aroma compounds that are chemically identical to some substance that can be found in nature. They are synthesized fromchemicalsor isolated by means of chemical processes.

Because nature-identical flavorings can be produced at low costs, the food industry will argue that nature-identical and natural flavorings are exactly the same. They have the advantage to be chemically pure, withoutallergensthat may be coupled with natural flavorings. On the other hand, they are missing thesynergyof other substances present in their natural origin, so they may lack subtlety.

Artificial flavorings

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Artificialflavorings are synthesized from chemical substances by man and are not found in nature. Their sensory characteristics mostly resemble that of natural or nature-identical flavorings.

Perception of flavorings

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Of the three chemical senses,smellis the main determinant of a food item's flavor.[5]Aromas are thevolatilecomponents of the food. The aroma is determined by thearoma compoundsit contains and the personal ability to detect them. While a flavoring primarily acts through theolfactory system,it also affects thetasteat the same time.

Along with additives, other components like sugars determine the taste of food. Thetrigeminal nerves,which detect chemicalirritantsin themouthandthroat,as well as temperature and texture, are also important to the overall perception of food.[citation needed]

Mechanism

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Flavors from food products are usually the result of a combination of natural flavors, which set up the basic smell profile of a food product, while artificial flavors modify the smell to accent it.[6]

Unlike smelling, which occurs uponinhalation,the sensing of flavors in the mouth occurs in theexhalationphase ofbreathingand is perceived differently by an individual. In other words, the smell of food is different depending on whether one is smelling it before or after it has entered one's mouth.[7]

Taste

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The taste of a food product is not only determined by the aromas present in the original material and added flavorings, but also by accompanying substances like flavor enhancers,sweeteners,acidulantsandsalt substitutes.Polyolslikesorbitolandmaltitol,are carriers in flavorings, but they themselves also have a sweet taste.

Even the color of food can affect one's experience of the taste significantly.[8] In one study, adding morered colorto a drink increased the perceived sweetness, with darker colored solutions being rated 2–10% better than lighter ones, though it had 1% less sucrose concentration.[9]Food manufacturers exploit this phenomenon; for example, different colors of the U.S. productFroot Loopscereal and most brands ofGummy Bearsoften use the same flavorings.[10][11]

Flavor enhancers

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Flavor enhancers or taste enhancers, which areumamior "savory" compounds, are themselves not flavorings, but they intensify the taste of the food. They are largely based onamino acidsandnucleotides.These are typically used assodiumorcalciumsalts.[12]Umami flavorings recognized and approved by the European Union include:[13]

Acid salts Description
Glutamic acidsalts This amino acid's sodium salt,monosodium glutamate(MSG), is one of the most commonly used flavor enhancers in food processing. Mono- and diglutamate salts are also commonly used.
Glycinesalts Simple amino acid salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers
Guanylic acid(GMP) salts Nucleotide salts typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers
Inosinic acid(IMP) salts Nucleotide salts created from the breakdown of AMP. Due to high costs of production, typically combined with glutamic acid as flavor enhancers
5'-ribonucleotidesalts A blend of GMP and IMP salts ( "I+G" ), generally in thedisodium ribonucleotidesform; typically combined with amino acids flavor enhancers

Regulations

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In Europe

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Under the EU legislation, substances which have exclusively a sweet, sour or salty taste are not considered flavorings (Article 2, Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008.[14]

Also flavor enhancers are not considered flavorings under the EU legislation but additives (Point 14 of Annex I of Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008).[15]

EU legislation defines several types of flavorings:[16]

  • flavoring substances (including "natural flavoring substances" ):
  • flavoring preparations (by definition always natural):
  • thermal process flavorings
  • smoke flavorings
  • flavor precursors
  • other flavorings

In the EU, Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 on flavorings and certain food ingredients with flavoring properties for use in/on foods, i.e. the EU Flavouring Regulation, was adopted on 16 December 2008 and entered into force on 20 January 2009. It applies from 20 January 2011. Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 lays down general requirements for safe use of flavorings and provides definitions for different types of flavorings. The Regulation sets out substances for which an evaluation and approval is required. The Union list of flavoring substances, approved for use in and on foods, was adopted on 1 October 2012 and was introduced in Annex I of this Regulation[17]

In the UK

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The UK followed the above EU legislation which remained in force until 31 December 2020. The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 provided that from 1 January 2021, this directly applicable EU legislation was converted into UK law with minor corrections to enable it to operate effectively as UK law. These corrections were made by Statutory Instrument 2019 No. 860.

The UK Food industry, in collaboration with the flavoring industry, has developed guidance on what to consider when declaring a pictorial representation of a food ingredient on the label of a pre-packed product.

In the United States

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In the United States, flavorings are regulated inTitle 21of theCode of Federal Regulations.They are divided into artificial and natural flavorings.[4]

In Australia and New Zealand

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In Australia and New Zealand regulation of flavorings is covered by the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code of November 2000, entered into force in December 2002.[3]

Natural flavorings are obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical, microbiological, or enzymatic processes. They can be either used in their natural state or processed for human consumption, but cannot contain any nature-identical or artificial flavoring substances.

Nature-identical flavorings are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are chemically andorganolepticallyidentical to flavoring substances naturally present in products intended for human consumption. They cannot contain any artificial flavoring substances.

Artificial flavorings are "flavouring substances not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or not the product is processed."

Regulations on natural flavoring

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American ice cream shop using natural flavors

In the EU, in order to be labeled as natural flavoring substance, many conditions have to be fulfilled: "Natural flavouring substance" shall mean a flavoring substance obtained by appropriate physical, enzymatic or microbiological processes from material of vegetable, animal or microbiological origin either in the raw state or after processing for human consumption by one or more of the traditional food preparation processes listed in Annex II. Natural flavoring substances correspond to substances that are naturally present and have been identified in nature (Article 3).[14]

More detailed information on the Production of Natural Flavouring Substances and (Natural) Flavouring Preparations can be found on the European Flavour Association (EFFA) Guidance Document.[18]

UKFood Law defines a natural flavor as:

A flavouring substance (or flavouring substances) which is (or are) obtained, by physical, enzymatic, or microbiological processes, from material of vegetable or animal origin which material is either raw or has been subjected to a process normally used in preparing food for human consumption and to no process other than one normally so used[19]

The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations describes a "natural flavoring" as:

Theessential oil,oleoresin, essence, or extractive, protein hydrolysate,distillate,or any product of roasting, heating, or enzymolysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit, or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf, or any other edible portions of a plant, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose primary function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional.[4]

Dietary restrictions

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Food manufacturers are sometimes reluctant to inform consumers about the source and identity of flavor ingredients and whether they have been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal byproducts.[citation needed]Some flavor ingredients, such asgelatin,are produced from animal products. Some, such asglycerin,can be derived from either animal or vegetable sources. And some extracts, such as vanilla, may contain alcohol. Many groups such asJews,Jains,Hindus,andMuslims,as well asvegansfollow dietary restrictions which disallow the use of animal byproducts and/or alcohol in certain contexts. In many Western countries, some consumers rely on a Jewishkosherparevecertification mark to indicate that natural flavorings used in a food product are free of meat and dairy (although they can still contain fish).The Vegan Society's Sunflower symbol (which is currently used by over 260 companies worldwide) can also be used to see which products do not use any animal ingredients (including flavorings and colorings).[citation needed]

Similarly, persons with knownsensitivitiesorallergiesto food products are advised to avoid foods that contain generic "natural flavors" or to first determine the source of the flavoring before consuming the food.[20]Such flavors may be derived from a variety of source products that are themselves commonallergens,such asdairy,soy,[21]sesame,[22]eggs,andnuts.[23] In the EU, nevertheless, this information is available in the labeling. Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, states in article 9 that any ingredient or processing aid listed in Annex II (of the aforementioned Regulation) or derived from a substance or product listed in Annex II causing allergies or intolerances used in the manufacture or preparation of a food and still present in the finished product, even if in an altered form must be included in the labeling.[24]

Flavor creation

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See also:food scienceandfood technology

Most artificial flavors are specific and often complex mixtures of singular naturally occurring flavor compounds combined to either imitate or enhance a natural flavor. These mixtures are formulated by flavorists to give a food product a unique flavor and to maintain flavor consistency between different product batches or after recipe changes. The list of known flavoring agents includes thousands of molecular compounds, and flavor chemists (flavorists) can often mix these together to produce many of the common flavors. Many flavorings consist ofesters,which are often described as being sweet or fruity.[25]

The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally. It has been suggested that artificial flavors may be safer to consume than natural flavors due to the standards of purity and mixture consistency that are enforced either by the company or by law.[26]Natural flavors, in contrast, may contain impurities from their sources, while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for consumption.[26]

Foodandbeveragecompanies may require flavors for new products, product line extensions (e.g., low fat versions of existing products), or changes in formula or processing for existing products. In 2011, about US$10.6 billion were generated with the sale of flavors; the majority of the flavors used are consumed inultra-processed foodandconvenience food.[27]

The number of food smells is unbounded; a food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. This is exemplified in artificially flavoredjellies,soft drinksand candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances.

Most flavors represent a mixture ofaroma compounds,the raw material that is produced by flavor companies. In rare cases, a single synthetic compound is used in pure form. Artificialvanilla flavorsvanillinandethylvanillinare a notable exception, as well as the artificialstrawberryflavor (ethyl methylphenylglycidate). The ubiquitous "green apple" aroma is based onhexyl acetate.[28]

Table of some fruity flavorings

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Chemical Odor
Manzanate Apple
Diacetyl,acetylpropionyl,acetoin Buttery
Isoamyl acetate Banana
Benzaldehyde Bitter almond,cherry
Cinnamaldehyde Cinnamon
Ethyl propionate Fruity
Methyl anthranilate Grape
Limonene Orange
γ-Decalactone Peach
Ethyl decadienoate Pear
Allyl hexanoate Pineapple
Ethyl maltol Sugar,cotton candy
2,4-Dithiapentane Truffle
Ethylvanillin Vanilla
Methyl salicylate Wintergreen
ethyl methylphenylglycidate strawberry

Determination

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Few standards are available or being prepared for sensory analysis of flavors.[29]Inchemical analysisof flavors,solid phase extraction,solid phase microextraction,and headspacegas chromatographyare applied to extract and separate the flavor compounds in the sample. The determination is typically done by variousmass spectrometrictechniques.[30]Aflavor lexiconcan aid the development of objective language for food.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^See spelling differences:American and British English spelling differences

References

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  1. ^Small DM, Green BG. "A Proposed Model of a Flavor ModalityArchived19 September 2021 at theWayback Machine".In: Murray MM, Wallace MT, editors. The Neural Bases of Multisensory Processes. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2012. Chapter 36.
  2. ^Wolfe, Jeremy; Kluender, Keith; Levi, Dennis (2012).Sensation & perception(3rd ed.). Sinauer Associates. p. 7.ISBN978-0-87893-572-7.
  3. ^abcFlavourings and Flavour Enhancers — User Guide,August 2002. The Australia and New Zealand Food Standards Code (archived)
  4. ^abcU.S. Food and Drug Administration,Food LabelingArchived9 February 2022 at theWayback MachineIn: Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21 — Food and drugs, Chapter I. (version of 6 Jan 2022)
  5. ^Shepherd, Gordon M. (2012).Neurogastronomy.New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-15910-4.
  6. ^Amy Fleming (8 December 2014)."Fake flavours: why artificial aromas can't compete with real food smells".Food & Drink.The Guardian.Archivedfrom the original on 3 June 2015.Retrieved3 June2015.
  7. ^Masaoka, Yuri; Satoh, Hironori; Akai, Lena; Homma, Ikuo (2010). "Expiration: The moment we experience retronasal olfaction in flavor".Neuroscience Letters.473(2): 92–6.doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2010.02.024.PMID20171264.S2CID2671577.
  8. ^Shankar, Maya U.; Levitan, Carmel A.; Spence, Charles (2010). "Grape expectations: The role of cognitive influences in color–flavor interactions".Consciousness and Cognition.19(1): 380–90.doi:10.1016/j.concog.2009.08.008.PMID19828330.S2CID32230245.
  9. ^Johnson, J.; Clydesdale, F. M. (1982). "Perceived Sweetness and Redness in Colored Sucrose Solutions".Journal of Food Science.47(3): 747.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1982.tb12706.x.
  10. ^Stevens, Ashlie (8 January 2018)."Are Gummy Bear Flavors Just Fooling Our Brains?".NPR.Archivedfrom the original on 17 January 2018.Retrieved16 January2018.
  11. ^Locker, Melissa (21 January 2014)."Breaking Breakfast News: Fruit Loops Are All the Same Flavor, after the Mandela effect now known as Froot Loops".Time.
  12. ^"Monosodium Glutamate & Umami".International Glutamate Information Service.Archived fromthe originalon 25 June 2017.Retrieved3 June2015.
  13. ^"Flavorings".Food Additives.Archivedfrom the original on 6 May 2015.Retrieved3 June2015.
  14. ^abRegulation (EC) No 1334/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on flavourings and certain food ingredients with flavouring properties for use in and on foods and amending Council Regulation (EEC) No 1601/91, Regulations (EC) No 2232/96 and (EC) No 110/2008 and Directive 2000/13/ECArchived9 February 2022 at theWayback Machine(consolidated version of 24 November 2021). The preamble isreproduced hereArchived9 February 2022 at theWayback Machine
  15. ^Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food additivesArchived9 February 2022 at theWayback Machine(consolidated version of 8 August 2021). The preamble isreproduced hereArchived9 February 2022 at theWayback Machine
  16. ^European Commission website, Directorate General for Health and Food Safety. Retrieved on 6 May 2020https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food_improvement_agents/flavourings_enArchived12 July 2020 at theWayback Machine
  17. ^European Commission website, Directorate General for Health and Food Safety. Retrieved on 6 May 2020:https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food_improvement_agents/flavourings/eu_rules_enArchived16 July 2020 at theWayback Machine
  18. ^EFFA Guidance Document for the Production of Natural Flavouring Substances and (Natural) Flavouring Preparations:https://effa.eu/docs/default-source/guidance-documents/effa-guidance-document-for-the-production-of-natural-flavouring-substances-and-(natural)-flavouring-preparations-in-the-eu6c53ae21f98c63ce9dbbff000087830d.pdf[permanent dead link]
  19. ^"The Flavourings in Food (Amendment) Regulations 1994".www.opsi.gov.uk.Archivedfrom the original on 28 May 2008.Retrieved3 February2018.
  20. ^"Attention, Allergy Sufferers: Beware of Natural Flavors".Food Safety News.2 December 2015.Archivedfrom the original on 3 February 2018.Retrieved3 February2018.
  21. ^"Hidden Allergens in Foods".Allergy Advisor.Archived fromthe originalon 27 December 2011.Retrieved27 December2011.
  22. ^"Sesame Allergy: A growing food allergy".Kids with Food Allergies Foundation.Archived fromthe originalon 21 April 2012.Retrieved27 December2011.
  23. ^"Food Allergies".Center for Science in the Public Interest.Archived fromthe originalon 26 August 2011.Retrieved27 December2011.
  24. ^Regulation (EU) no 1169/2011 of the European parliament and of the council of 25 October 2011
  25. ^"How do artificial flavors work?".How Stuff Works.31 May 2000.Archivedfrom the original on 30 October 2012.Retrieved3 June2015.
  26. ^abR.L. Smitha; S.M. Cohenb; J. Doullc; V.J. Ferond; J.I. Goodmane; L.J. Marnettf; P.S. Portogheseg; W.J. Waddellh; B.M.Wagneri; R.L. Hallj; N.A. Higleyk; C. Lucas-Gavinl; T.B. Adamsm (2005). "A procedure for the safety evaluation of natural flavor complexes used as ingredients in food: essential oils".Food and Chemical Toxicology.43(3): 345–363.doi:10.1016/j.fct.2004.11.007.PMID15680674.
  27. ^Ceresana, market study Flavors, December 2012,http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/chemicals/flavors/Archived29 July 2013 at theWayback Machine
  28. ^Luebke, William (31 December 2017)."hexyl acetate, 142-92-7".www.thegoodscentscompany.com.Archivedfrom the original on 3 February 2018.Retrieved3 February2018.
  29. ^e.g. ISO 13301:2002 Sensory analysis – Methodology – General guidance for measuring odor, flavor and taste detection thresholds by a three-alternative forced-choice (3-AFC) procedure, or ISO 6564:1985 Sensory analysis – Methodology – Flavor profile methods.
  30. ^Use of Ozone Depleting Substances in Laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516.norden.orgArchived27 February 2008 at theWayback Machine

Further reading

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  • J. Demyttenaere, "Natural or Synthetic? The Legal Framework in the EU for the Production of Natural Flavouring Ingredients". In:Biotechnology of Natural Products(Schwab, W., Lange, B.M. and Wüst, M., Eds.), Springer, 2018.
  • J.C.R. Demyttenaere, "The new European Union Flavouring Regulation and its impact on essential oils: production of natural flavouring ingredients and maximum levels of restricted substances",Flavour and Fragrance Journal,27, 3–12 (2012).
  • J.C.R. Demyttenaere. "The EU Regulation on Flavourings – an Update after 10 Years into Force: Focus on B2B Labelling of Natural Flavourings and Dealing with Restricted Substances",Foods & Food Ingredients Journal of Japan,224(2), 178, 2019.
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