Food additivesare substances added tofoodto preserveflavoror enhance taste, appearance, or other sensory qualities. Some additives have been used for centuries as part of an effort to preserve food, for examplevinegar(pickling), salt (salting),smoke(smoking),sugar(crystallization), etc. This allows for longer-lasting foods such asbacon,sweetsorwines.With the advent ofultra-processed foodsin the second half of the twentieth century, many additives have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin. Food additives also include substances that may be introduced to food indirectly (called "indirect additives" ) in the manufacturing process, throughpackaging,or during storage or transport.[1][2]
Numbering
editTo regulate these additives and inform consumers, each additive is assigned a unique number called an "E number",which is used inEuropefor all approved additives. This numbering scheme has now been adopted and extended by theCodex AlimentariusCommission to internationally identify all additives,[3]regardless of whether they are approved for use.
E numbers are all prefixed by "E", but countries outside Europe use only the number, whether the additive is approved in Europe or not. For example,acetic acidis written as E260 on products sold in Europe, but is simply known as additive 260 in some countries. Additive 103,alkannin,is not approved for use in Europe so does not have an E number, although it is approved for use inAustraliaandNew Zealand.Since 1987, Australia has had an approved system of labelling for additives in packaged foods. Each food additive has to be named or numbered. The numbers are the same as in Europe, but without the prefix "E".[citation needed]
The United StatesFood and Drug Administration(FDA) lists these items as "generally recognized as safe"(GRAS);[4]they are listed under both theirChemical Abstracts Servicenumber and FDA regulation under the United StatesCode of Federal Regulations.
- Seelist of food additivesfor a complete list of all the names.[citation needed]
Categories
editFood additives can be divided into several groups, although there is some overlap because some additives exert more than one effect. For example, salt is both a preservative as well as a flavor.[5][1]
- Acidulants
- Acidulantsconfer sour or acid taste. Common acidulants includevinegar,citric acid,tartaric acid,malic acid,fumaric acid,andlactic acid.
- Acidity regulators
- Acidity regulatorsare used for controlling thepHof foods for stability or to affect activity of enzymes.
- Anticaking agents
- Anticaking agentskeep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking.
- Antifoaming and foaming agents
- Antifoaming agentsreduce or prevent foaming in foods. Foaming agents do the reverse.
- Antioxidants
- Antioxidantssuch asvitamin Care preservatives by inhibiting the degradation of food byoxygen.
- Bulking agents
- Bulking agents such asstarchare additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its taste.
- Food coloring
- Coloringsare added to food to replace colors lost during preparation or to make food look more attractive.
- Fortifying agents
- Vitamins,minerals,anddietary supplementsto increase the nutritional value
- Color retention agents
- In contrast to colorings,color retention agentsare used to preserve a food's existing color.
- Emulsifiers
- Emulsifiersallow water and oils to remain mixed together in anemulsion,as inmayonnaise,ice cream,and homogenizedmilk.
- Flavorings*
- Flavoringsare additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created artificially.
- *In EU, flavorings do not have an E-code and they are not considered as food additives.
- Flavor enhancers
- Flavor enhancersenhance a food's existing flavors. A popular example ismonosodium glutamate.Some flavor enhancers have their own flavors that are independent of the food.
- Flour treatment agents
- Flour treatment agentsare added toflourto improve its color or its use inbaking.
- Glazing agents
- Glazing agentsprovide a shiny appearance or protective coating to foods.
- Humectants
- Humectantsprevent foods from drying out.
- Tracer gas
- Tracer gasallows for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being exposed to atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life.
- Preservatives
- Preservativesprevent or inhibit spoilage of food due tofungi,bacteriaand othermicroorganisms.
- Stabilizers
- Stabilizers,thickeners and gelling agents, likeagarorpectin(used injamfor example) give foods a firmer texture. While they are not true emulsifiers, they help to stabilizeemulsions.
- Sweeteners
- Sweetenersare added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other thansugarare added to keep thefood energy(calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects regardingdiabetes mellitus,tooth decay,ordiarrhea.
- Thickeners
- Thickening agentsare substances which, when added to the mixture, increase itsviscositywithout substantially modifying its other properties.
- Packaging
- Bisphenols,phthalates,andperfluoroalkyl chemicals(PFCs) are indirect additives used in manufacturing or packaging. In July 2018 the American Academy of Pediatrics called for more careful study of those three substances, along withnitratesand food coloring, as they might harm children during development.[6]
Safety and regulation
editWith the increasing use of processed foods since the 19th century, food additives are more widely used. Many countries regulate their use. For example,boric acidwas widely used as a food preservative from the 1870s to the 1920s,[7][8]but was banned afterWorld War Idue to its toxicity, as demonstrated in animal and human studies. DuringWorld War II,the urgent need for cheap, available food preservatives led to it being used again, but it was finally banned in the 1950s.[7]Such cases led to a general mistrust of food additives, and an application of theprecautionary principleled to the conclusion that only additives that are known to be safe should be used in foods. In the United States, this led to the adoption of theDelaney clause,an amendment to theFederal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Actof 1938, stating that nocarcinogenicsubstances may be used as food additives.[9]However, after the banning ofcyclamatesin the United States and Britain in 1969,saccharin,the only remaining legalartificial sweetenerat the time, was found to cause cancer in rats.[10]Widespread public outcry in the United States, partly communicated to Congress by postage-paid postcards supplied in the packaging ofsweetened soft drinks,led to the retention of saccharin, despite its violation of the Delaney clause.[11]However, in 2000, saccharin was found to be carcinogenic in rats due only to their unique urine chemistry.[12][13]
In 2007,Food Standards Australia New Zealandpublished an official shoppers' guidance with which the concerns of food additives and their labeling are mediated.[14]In the EU it can take 10 years or more to obtain approval for a new food additive. This includes five years of safety testing, followed by two years for evaluation by theEuropean Food Safety Authority(EFSA) and another three years before the additive receives an EU-wide approval for use in every country in theEuropean Union.[15]Apart from testing and analyzing food products during the whole production process to ensure safety and compliance with regulatory standards,Trading Standardsofficers (in the UK) protect the public from any illegal use or potentially dangerous mis-use of food additives by performing random testing of food products.[16]
There has been significant controversy associated with the risks and benefits of food additives.[17]Natural additives may be similarly harmful or be the cause of allergic reactions in certain individuals. For example,safrolewas used to flavorroot beeruntil it was shown to be carcinogenic. Due to the application of the Delaney clause, it may not be added to foods, even though it occurs naturally insassafrasand sweetbasil.[18]
Hyperactivity
editPeriodically, concerns have been expressed about a linkage between additives andhyperactivity,[19]however "no clear evidence of ADHD was provided".[20]
Toxicity
editIn 2012, the EFSA proposed the tier approach to evaluate the potential toxicity of food additives. It is based on four dimensions: toxicokinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion);genotoxicity;subchronic (at least 90 data) and chronic toxicity andcarcinogenity;reproductive and developmental toxicity.[21]Recent work has demonstrated that certain food additives such as carboxymethylcellulose may cause encroachment of microbes from the gastrointestinal tract into the protective mucus layer that lines the intestines.[22]Additional preclinical work suggests that emulsifiers may disrupt the gut microbiome, cause or exacerbate inflammation, and increase intestinal permeability.[23]Other food additives in processed foods, such as xanthan gum, have also been shown to influence the ecology of human gut microbiomes and may play a role in the divergence of gut microbiomes in industrialized societies as compared to pre-industrialized societies.[24]Although still controversial, some scientists hypothesize that these changes to human gut microbiomes may be a contributing factor to the rise in chronic inflammatory diseases in industrialized populations.[25]
Micronutrients
editA subset of food additives,micronutrientsadded infood fortificationprocesses preservenutrient valueby providingvitaminsandmineralsto foods such as flour, cereal, margarine and milk which normally would not retain such high levels.[26]Added ingredients, such as air, bacteria, fungi, and yeast, also contribute manufacturing and flavor qualities, and reduce spoilage.[27]
Approval in the United States
editThe United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines a food additive as "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result directly or indirectly in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food".[28]In order for a novel food additive to be approved in the U.S., a food additive approval petition (FAP) must be submitted to the FDA.[29]The identity of the ingredient, the proposed use in the food system, the technical effect of the ingredient, a method of analysis for the ingredient in foods, information on the manufacturing process, and full safety reports must be defined in a FAP.[30]For FDA approval of a FAP, the FDA evaluates the chemical composition of the ingredient, the quantities that would be typically consumed, acute and chronic health impacts, and other safety factors.[28]The FDA reviews the petition prior to market approval of the additive.[citation needed]
Standardization of its derived products
editISOhas published a series of standards regarding the topic and these standards are covered by ICS 67.220.[31]
See also
edit
- Color retention agent
- Delaney clause
- Dietary supplement
- E number
- Food Chemicals Codex
- Food fortification
- Food industry
- Food processing
- Food supplements
- Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives
- List of food additives
- List of food additives, Codex Alimentarius
- List of food labeling regulations
- List of phytochemicals in food
- Organic fertilizer
- Pink slime
- Processing aid
- Smoking
- Sugar substitute
- Wine preservatives
References
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- ^"Food Ingredients and Packaging Terms".FDA. January 4, 2018.Retrieved9 September2018.
- ^ Codex Alimentarius."Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives.food additives"(PDF).
- ^See also "Food Additives",Food and Drug Administration website
- ^Erich Lück and Gert-Wolfhard von Rymon Lipinski "Foods, 3. Food Additives" inUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry,2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_561
- ^"Press release: Some Common Food Additives May Pose Health Risks to Children".American Academy of Pediatrics.July 23, 2018.
- ^abBucci, Luke (1995).Nutrition applied to injury rehabilitation and sports medicine.Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp.151.ISBN0-8493-7913-X.
- ^Rev. Lyman Abbott, ed. (1900).The Outlook (Vol. 65).Outlook Co. p. 403.
- ^Epstein, S (March 1973)."The Delaney Amendment".Preventive Medicine.2(1): 140–149.doi:10.1016/0091-7435(73)90016-9.PMID4803324.
- ^Reuber, M D (August 1978)."Carcinogenicity of saccharin".Environmental Health Perspectives.25:173–200.doi:10.1289/ehp.7825173.ISSN0091-6765.PMC1637197.PMID363408.
- ^Assessment of technologies for determining cancer risks from the environment.Darby, Pennsylvania, USA: DIANE publishing. 1981. p. 177.ISBN1-4289-2437-X.
- ^Whysner, J.; Williams, GM. (1996). "Saccharin mechanistic data and risk assessment: urine composition, enhanced cell proliferation, and tumor promotion".Pharmacol Ther.71(1–2): 225–52.doi:10.1016/0163-7258(96)00069-1.PMID8910956.
- ^Dybing, E. (December 2002). "Development and implementation of the IPCS conceptual framework for evaluating mode of action of chemical carcinogens".Toxicology.181–182: 121–5.Bibcode:2002Toxgy.181..121D.doi:10.1016/S0300-483X(02)00266-4.PMID12505296.
- ^Food Standards Australia New Zealand(2007)."Choosing the Right Stuff - the official shoppers' guide to food additives and labels, kilojoules and fat content".Archived fromthe originalon 14 May 2009.Retrieved3 May2009.
- ^"Loading..."www.understandingfoodadditives.org.
- ^"Loading..."www.understandingfoodadditives.org.
- ^Martin Downs, MPH (17 December 2008)."The Truth About 7 Common Food Additives".WebMD.
- ^Fennema, Owen R. (1996).Food chemistry.New York, N.Y: Marcel Dekker. pp.827.ISBN0-8247-9691-8.
- ^ McCann, D; Barrett, A; Cooper, A; Crumpler, D; Dalen, L; Grimshaw, K; Kitchin, E; Lok, K; et al. (2007). "Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial".Lancet.370(9598): 1560–7.doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61306-3.PMID17825405.S2CID10654579.
- ^Amchova, Petra; Kotolova, Hana; Ruda-Kucerova, Jana "Health safety issues of synthetic food colorants" Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology (2015), 73(3), 914-922.doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.09.026
- ^Vettorazzi, Ariane; López De Cerain, Adela; Sanz-Serrano, Julen; Gil, Ana G.; Azqueta, Amaya (2020)."European Regulatory Framework and Safety Assessment of Food-Related Bioactive Compounds".Nutrients.12(3): 613.doi:10.3390/nu12030613.PMC7146632.PMID32110982.
- ^Chassaing, Benoit; Compher, Charlene; Bonhomme, Brittaney; Liu, Qing; Tian, Yuan; Walters, William; Nessel, Lisa; Delaroque, Clara; Hao, Fuhua; Gershuni, Victoria; Chau, Lillian; Ni, Josephine; Bewtra, Meenakshi; Albenberg, Lindsey; Bretin, Alexis; McKeever, Liam; Ley, Ruth E.; Patterson, Andrew D.; Wu, Gary D.; Gewirtz, Andrew T.; Lewis, James D. (March 2022)."Randomized Controlled-Feeding Study of Dietary Emulsifier Carboxymethylcellulose Reveals Detrimental Impacts on the Gut Microbiota and Metabolome".Gastroenterology.162(3): 743–756.doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2021.11.006.PMC9639366.PMID34774538.S2CID244050800.
- ^Chassaing, Benoit; Koren, Omry; Goodrich, Julia K.; Poole, Angela C.; Srinivasan, Shanthi; Ley, Ruth E.; Gewirtz, Andrew T. (5 March 2015)."Dietary emulsifiers impact the mouse gut microbiota promoting colitis and metabolic syndrome".Nature.519(7541): 92–96.Bibcode:2015Natur.519...92C.doi:10.1038/nature14232.PMC4910713.PMID25731162.(Erratum:doi:10.1038/nature18000,PMID27144359,Retraction Watch)
- ^Ostrowski, Matthew P.; La Rosa, Sabina Leanti; Kunath, Benoit J.; Robertson, Andrew; Pereira, Gabriel; Hagen, Live H.; Varghese, Neha J.; Qiu, Ling; Yao, Tianming; Flint, Gabrielle; Li, James; McDonald, Sean P.; Buttner, Duna; Pudlo, Nicholas A.; Schnizlein, Matthew K.; Young, Vincent B.; Brumer, Harry; Schmidt, Thomas M.; Terrapon, Nicolas; Lombard, Vincent; Henrissat, Bernard; Hamaker, Bruce; Eloe-Fadrosh, Emiley A.; Tripathi, Ashootosh; Pope, Phillip B.; Martens, Eric C. (April 2022). "Mechanistic insights into consumption of the food additive xanthan gum by the human gut microbiota".Nature Microbiology.7(4): 556–569.doi:10.1038/s41564-022-01093-0.hdl:11250/3003739.PMID35365790.S2CID247866305.
- ^Sonnenburg, Erica D.; Sonnenburg, Justin L. (June 2019). "The ancestral and industrialized gut microbiota and implications for human health".Nature Reviews Microbiology.17(6): 383–390.doi:10.1038/s41579-019-0191-8.PMID31089293.S2CID153314897.
- ^Weaver, Connie M; Dwyer, Johanna; Fulgoni, Victor L; King, Janet C; Leveille, Gilbert A; MacDonald, Ruth S; Ordovas, Jose; Schnakenberg, David (23 April 2014)."Processed foods: contributions to nutrition".American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.99(6): 1525–1542.doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.089284.ISSN0002-9165.PMC6410904.PMID24760975.
- ^"Food processing: The advantages of processed foods".The European Food Information Council. 1 May 2010.Retrieved5 August2019.
- ^abNutrition, Center for Food Safety and Applied (2020-02-20)."Overview of Food Ingredients, Additives & Colors".FDA.
- ^"PART 171—FOOD ADDITIVE PETITIONS",The CRC Master Keyword Guide for Food,CRC Press, pp. 596–601, 2003-11-25,doi:10.1201/9780203504529-50,ISBN9780429211027,retrieved2021-10-13
- ^Nutrition, Center for Food Safety and Applied (2021-09-17)."Guidance for Industry: Recommendations for Submission of Chemical and Technological Data for Direct Food Additive Petitions".U.S. Food and Drug Administration.Retrieved2021-09-29.
- ^International Organization for Standardization."67.220: Spices and condiments. Food additives".Retrieved23 April2009.
Additional sources
edit- U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (1991).Everything Added to Food in the United States.Boca Raton, Florida: C.K. Smoley (c/o CRC Press, Inc.).
- The Food Labelling Regulations (1984)
- Advanced Modular Science, Nelson, Food and Health, by John Adds, Erica Larkcom and Ruth Miller