Wikipedia

Gecko

This article is about the type of reptile. For other uses, seeGecko (disambiguation).

Geckosare small, mostly carnivorouslizardsthat have a wide distribution, found on every continent exceptAntarctica.Belonging to theinfraorderGekkota,geckos are found in warmclimatesthroughout the world. They range from 1.6 to 60centimetres(0.6 to 23.6inches).

Gecko
Temporal range:100–0MaCenomanian–present
Stem-groups present sinceAptian-Albian[1]
Gold dust day gecko
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Clade: Gekkonomorpha
Infraorder: Gekkota
Cuvier,1817
Subgroups

Geckos are unique among lizards for theirvocalisations,which differ from species to species. Most geckos in the familyGekkonidaeuse chirping or clicking sounds in their social interactions.Tokay geckos(Gekko gecko) are known for their loudmating calls,and some other species are capable of making hissing noises when alarmed or threatened. They are the most species-rich group of lizards, with about 1,500 different species worldwide.[2]

All geckos, except species in the familyEublepharidaelack eyelids; instead, the outer surface of the eyeball has atransparentmembrane, thebrille.They have a fixedlenswithin eachiristhat enlarges in darkness to let in more light. Since they cannotblink,species without eyelids generally lick their own brilles when they need to clear them of dust and dirt, in order to keep them clean and moist.[3]

Unlike most lizards, geckos are usuallynocturnal[4]and have excellentnight vision;theircolour visionin low light is 350 times more sensitive thanhuman eyes.[5]The nocturnal geckos evolved fromdiurnalspecies, which had lost therod cellsfrom their eyes. The gecko eye, therefore, modified itscone cellsthat increased in size into different types, both single and double. Three different photo-pigments have been retained, and are sensitive to ultraviolet, blue, and green. They also use a multifocal optical system that allows them to generate a sharp image for at least two different depths.[6][7]While most gecko species are nocturnal, some species are diurnal and active during the day, which have evolved multiple times independently.[4]

Many species are well known for their specialised toe pads, which enable them to grab and climb onto smooth and vertical surfaces, and even cross indoor ceilings with ease. Geckos are well known to people who live in warm regions of the world, where several species make their home inside human habitations. These, for example thehouse gecko,become part of the indoor menagerie and are often welcomed, as they feed oninsectpests;includingmothsandmosquitoes.Like most lizards, geckos can lose their tails in defence, a process calledautotomy;the predator may attack the wriggling tail, allowing the gecko to escape.[8]

The largest species,Gigarcanum delcourti,is only known from a single, stuffed specimen probably collected in the 19th century found in the basement of theNatural History Museum of MarseilleinMarseille,France. This gecko was 600millimetres(24inches) long, and it was likelyendemictoNew Caledonia,where it lived in native forests.[9]The smallest gecko, theJaragua sphaero,is a mere 16 millimetres (0.63 inches) long, and was discovered in 2001 on a small island off the coast ofHispaniola.[10]

Etymology

TheNeo-LatingekkoandEnglish'gecko' stem fromIndonesian-Malaysiangēkoq,[11]aMalayword borrowed fromJavanese,[12]fromtokek,whichimitatesthe sounds that some species likeTokay geckomake.[11][13]: 120 [14]: 253 

Common traits

Like other reptiles, geckos areectothermic,[15]producing very little metabolic heat. Essentially, a gecko's body temperature is dependent on its environment. Also, to accomplish their main functions; such as locomotion, feeding, reproduction, etc., geckos must have a relatively elevated temperature.[15]

Shedding or molting

Video of leopard gecko shedding skin

All geckos shed their skin at fairly regular intervals, with species differing in timing and method.Leopard geckosshed at about two- to four-week intervals. The presence of moisture aids in the shedding. When shedding begins, the gecko speeds the process by detaching the loose skin from its body and eating it.[16]For young geckos, shedding occurs more frequently, once a week, but when they are fully grown, they shed once every one to two months.[17]

Adhesion ability

See also:Synthetic setaeandGecko feet
Close-up of the underside of a gecko's foot as it walks on vertical glass

About 60% of gecko species have adhesive toe pads which allow them toadhereto most surfaces without the use of liquids orsurface tension.Such pads have been gained and lost repeatedly over the course of gecko evolution.[18]Adhesive toepads evolved independently in about eleven different gecko lineages, and were lost in at least nine lineages.[18]

It was previously thought that the spatula-shapedsetaearranged inlamellaeon gecko footpads enable attractivevan der Waals' forces(the weakest of the weak chemical forces) between theβ-keratinlamellae / setae / spatulae structures and the surface.[19][20]These van der Waals interactions involve no fluids; in theory, a boot made ofsynthetic setaewould adhere as easily to the surface of theInternational Space Stationas it would to a living-room wall, although adhesion varies with humidity.[21][22]However, a 2014 study suggests that gecko adhesion is in fact mainly determined by electrostatic interaction (caused by contact electrification), not van der Waals or capillary forces.[23]

The setae on the feet of geckos are also self-cleaning, and usually remove any clogging dirt within a few steps.[24][25][26]Polytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE), which has very low surface energy,[27]is more difficult for geckos to adhere to than many other surfaces.

Gecko adhesion is typically improved by higher humidity,[21][22][28][29][30]even on hydrophobic surfaces, yet is reduced under conditions of complete immersion in water. The role of water in that system is under discussion, yet recent experiments agree that the presence of molecular water layers (water molecules carry a very large dipole moment) on the setae, as well as on the surface, increase the surface energy of both, therefore the energy gain in getting these surfaces in contact is enlarged, which results in an increased gecko adhesion force.[21][22][28][29][30]Moreover, the elastic properties of the b-keratin change with water uptake.[21][22][28]

Gecko toes seem to bedouble-jointed,but this is a misnomer, and is properly called digital hyperextension.[31]Gecko toes can hyperextend in the opposite direction from human fingers and toes. This allows them to overcome the van der Waals force by peeling their toes off surfaces from the tips inward. In essence, by this peeling action, the gecko separates spatula by spatula from the surface, so for each spatula separation, only some force necessary. (The process is similar to removingScotch Tapefrom a surface.)

Geckos' toes operate well below their full attractive capabilities most of the time, because the margin for error is great depending upon thesurface roughness,and therefore the number of setae in contact with that surface.

Use of small van der Waals force requires very large surface areas; every square millimetre of a gecko's footpad contains about 14,000 hair-like setae. Each seta has a diameter of 5μm.Human hair varies from 18 to 180 μm, so the cross-sectional area of a human hair is equivalent to 12 to 1300 setae. Each seta is in turn tipped with between 100 and 1,000 spatulae.[24]Each spatula is 0.2 μm long[24](one five-millionth of a metre), or just below the wavelength of visible light.[32]

The setae of a typical mature 70-gram(2.5-ounce) gecko would be capable of supporting a weight of 133 kilograms (293 pounds):[33][34]each spatula could exert an adhesive force of 5 to 25 nN.[28][35]The exact value of the adhesion force of a spatula varies with the surface energy of the substrate to which it adheres. Recent studies[30][36]have moreover shown that the component of the surface energy derived from long-range forces, such as van der Waals forces, depends on the material's structure below the outermost atomic layers (up to 100 nm beneath the surface); taking that into account, the adhesive strength can be inferred.

Apart from thesetae,phospholipids;fatty substances produced naturally in their bodies, also come into play.[37]These lipids lubricate the setae and allow the gecko to detach its foot before the next step.

The origin of gecko adhesion likely started as simple modifications to the epidermis on the underside of the toes. This was recently discovered in the genusGonatodesfrom South America.[38][39]Simple elaborations of the epidermal spinules into setae have enabledGonatodes humeralisto climb smooth surfaces and sleep on smooth leaves.

Biomimetictechnologies designed tomimic gecko adhesioncould produce reusable self-cleaning dry adhesives with many applications. Development effort is being put into these technologies, but manufacturing synthetic setae is not a trivial material design task.

Skin

Gecko skin does not generally bear scales, but appears at a macro scale as a papillose surface, which is made from hair-like protuberances developed across the entire body. These confersuperhydrophobicity,and the unique design of the hair confers a profound antimicrobial action. These protuberances are very small, up to 4 microns in length, and tapering to a point.[40]Gecko skin has been observed to have an anti-bacterial property, killinggram-negative bacteriawhen they come in contact with the skin.[41]

Themossy leaf-tailed geckoof Madagascar,U. sikorae,has coloration developed ascamouflage,most being greyish brown to black, or greenish brown, with various markings meant to resembletreebark; down to thelichensand moss found on the bark. It also has flaps of skin, running the length of its body, head and limbs, known as thedermal flap,which it can lay against the tree during the day, scattering shadows, and making its outline practically invisible.[42]

Teeth

Aspolyphyodonts,geckos can replace each of their 100 teeth every 3 to 4 months.[43]Next to the full grown tooth there is a small replacement tooth developing from theodontogenicstem cellin thedental lamina.[44]The formation of the teeth ispleurodont;they are fused (ankylosed) by their sides to the inner surface of the jaw bones. This formation is common in all species in the orderSquamata.

Taxonomy and classification

Pores on the skin are often used in classification.

TheinfraorderGekkotais divided into seven families, containing about 125generaof geckos, including the snake-like (legless) pygopods.[18][45][46][47][48][4][49]

Legless lizards of the familyDibamidae,also referred to as blind lizards,[50]have occasionally been counted as gekkotans, but recent molecular phylogenies suggest otherwise.[51][52]

Gekkota

Evolutionary history

Skeleton ofEichstaettisaurus,thought to be an early member of the gecko lineage
Fossil ofYantarogekkopreserved in Baltic amber

Several species of lizard from the Late Jurassic have been considered early relatives of geckos, the most prominent and most well supported being the arborealEichstaettisaurusfrom the Late Jurassic of Germany.Norelliusfrom the Early Cretaceous of Mongolia is also usually placed as a close relative of geckos.[53]The oldest known fossils of modern geckos are from the mid-CretaceousBurmese amberof Myanmar (includingCretaceogekko), around 100 million years old, which have adhesive pads on the feet similar to those of living geckos.[54][55][56]

Species

Mediterranean house gecko

More than 1,850 species of geckos occur worldwide,[57]including these familiar species:

  • Coleonyx variegatus,the western banded gecko, is native to the southwesternUnited Statesand northwestMexico.
  • Cyrtopodion brachykolon,the bent-toed gecko, is found in northwesternPakistan;it was first described in 2007.
  • Eublepharis macularius,the leopard gecko, is the most common gecko kept as a pet; it does not have adhesive toe pads and cannot climb the glass of avivarium.
  • Gehyra mutilata(Pteropus mutilatus), the stump-toed gecko, is able to vary its color from very light to very dark to camouflage itself; this gecko is at home in the wild, as well as in residential areas.
  • Gekko gecko,the Tokay gecko, is a large, common,Southeast Asiangecko known for its aggressive temperament, loud mating calls, and bright markings.
  • Hemidactylusis genus of geckos with many varieties.
    • Hemidactylus frenatus,the common house gecko, thrives around people and human habitation structures in the tropics and subtropics worldwide.
    • Hemidactylus garnotii,the Indo-Pacific gecko, is found in houses throughout the tropics, and has become an invasive species of concern inFloridaandGeorgiain the US.
    • Hemidactylus mabouia,the tropical house gecko, Afro-American house gecko, or cosmopolitan house gecko, is a species of house gecko native to sub-Saharan Africa and also currently found in North, Central, and South America and the Caribbean.
    • Hemidactylus turcicus,the Mediterranean house gecko, is frequently found in and around buildings, and is anintroduced speciesin the US.
  • Lepidodactylus lugubris,the mourning gecko, is originally an East Asian and Pacific species; it is equally at home in the wild and residential neighborhoods.
  • Pachydactylus bibroni,Bibron's gecko, is native to southern Africa; this hardyarborealgecko is considered a household pest.
  • Phelsuma laticauda,the gold dust day gecko, is diurnal; it lives in northernMadagascarand on theComoros.It is also an introduced species inHawaii.
  • Ptychozoonis a genus of arboreal geckos from Southeast Asia also known as flying or parachute geckos; they have wing-like flaps from the neck to the upper leg to help them conceal themselves on trees and provide lift while jumping.
  • Rhacodactylusis genus of geckos native toNew Caledonia.
    • Rhacodactylus ciliatus(now assigned to the genusCorrelophus), the crested gecko, was believed extinct until rediscovered in 1994, and is gaining popularity as a pet.
    • Rhacodactylus leachianus,the New Caledonian giant gecko, was first described by Cuvier in 1829; it is the largest living species of gecko.
  • Sphaerodactylus ariasae,the dwarf gecko, is native to the Caribbean Islands; it is the world's smallest lizard.
  • Tarentola mauritanica,the crocodile or Moorish gecko, is commonly found in theMediterraneanregion from theIberian Peninsulaand southernFrancetoGreeceandnorthern Africa;their most distinguishing characteristics are their pointed heads, spiked skin, and tails resembling those of acrocodile.

Reproduction

See also:Parthenogenesis in squamata § Lizards

Most geckos lay a small clutch of eggs. Some are live-bearing, and a few canreproduce asexuallyviaparthenogenesis.Geckos also have a large diversity of sex-determining mechanisms, includingtemperature-dependent sex determinationand both XX/XY and ZZ/ZWsex chromosomeswith multiple transitions among them over evolutionary time.[58] Madagascar day geckos engage in a mating ritual in which sexually mature males produce a waxy substance from pores on the back of their legs. Males approach females with a head swaying motion along with rapid tongue flicking in the female.[59]

Obligateparthenogenesisas a reproductive system has evolved multiple times in the family Gekkonidae.[60]It has been shown thatoocytesare able to undergomeiosisin three different obligate parthenogenetic complexes of geckos. An extra premeiotic endoreplication ofchromosomesis essential for obligate parthenogenesis in these geckos.[60]Appropriate segregation during meiosis to form viable progeny is facilitated by the formation ofbivalentsmade from copies of identical chromosomes.

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Further reading

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