Wikipedia

Gendercide

Not to be confused withGenericide.

Gendercideis the systematic killing of members of a specificgender.[1]The term is related to the general concepts ofassaultandmurderagainst victims due to their gender, withviolence against menandwomenbeing problems dealt with byhuman rightsefforts. Gendercide shares similarities with the term 'genocide' in inflicting mass murders; however, gendercide targets solely one gender, being men or women. Politico-military frameworks have historically inflicted militant-governed divisions between femicide and androcide; gender-selective policies increase violence on gendered populations due to their socioeconomic significance. Certain cultural and religious sentiments have also contributed to multiple instances of gendercide across the globe.

Etymology

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The term gendercide was first coined by American feministMary Anne Warrenin her 1985 book,Gendercide: The Implications of Sex Selection.It refers to gender-selective mass killing.[2]Warren drew "an analogy between the concept of genocide" and what she called "gendercide". In her book, Warren wrote:

By analogy, gendercide would be the deliberate extermination of persons of a particular sex (or gender). Other terms, such as "gynocide" and "femicide," have been used to refer to the wrongful killing of girls and women. Nevertheless, "gendercide" is a sex-neutral term in that the victims may be either male or female. There is a need for such a sex-neutral term since sexually discriminatory killing is just as wrong when the victims happen to be male. The term also calls attention to the fact that gender roles have often had lethal consequences and that these are in important respects analogous to the lethal consequences of racial, religious, and class prejudice.[1]

Femicide

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Main article:Femicide
See also:Violence against women,Missing women,andFemale infanticide
Memorial plaque in Berlin for Nuriye Bekir, who was murdered in an "honor" killing
Memorial plaque forHatun Sürücüin Berlin. The Kurdish woman from Turkey was murdered at the age of 23 by her brothers in an "honor" killing.

Femicideis defined as the systematic killing of women for various reasons, usually cultural. The word is attested from the 1820s.[3]

The most widespread form of femicide is in the form of gender-selectiveinfanticidein cultures with strong preferences for males such asChinaandIndia.According to the United Nations, male-to-female ratios have experienced radical changes from the normal range.[4]Gendercide of girls is reported to be a rising problem in several countries. Census statistics report that in countries such as China, the male to female ratio is as high as 120 men for every 100 women.[5]Many experts attribute such a ratio to institutions such asChina's one-child policy.Female heirs were considered less desirable than male heirs, and subsequently abandoned and eliminated in mass.[6]Gendercide also takes the forms of infanticide and lethal violence against a particular gender at any stage of life. The World Bank describes violence against girls and women as a "global pandemic". One in three women experiences gender-based violence in their lifetime. In research released in 2019, 38% of murdered women were killed by an intimate partner.[6]

Sex ratios at birth over time in China:[7]

  • 106:100 in 1979 (106 boys for every 100 girls, close to the upper limit of the 'normal' range)
  • 111:100 in 1988
  • 117:100 in 2001
  • 120:100 in 2005

In India, parents may prefer male children because they desire heirs who will care for them in their old age. Other instances of female infanticide are carried out in belief that the female children are better off not being alive, so as to not "[suffer]".[8]Additionally, the cost of adowry– the family's price for their daughter to be married off – is very high in India, making a female child undesirable, while a male heir would bring a dowry to the family by way of marriage. According to theBritishpublication,The Independent,the 2011censusrevealed 7.1 million fewer girls than boys aged under the age of seven, up from 6 million in 2001 and from 4.2 million in 1991. The sex ratio in the age group is now 915 girls to 1,000 boys (109 boys for every 100 girls), the lowest since records began in 1961.[9]

There have been reports offemicide in Ciudad Juárez,Chihuahua, Mexico,[10]where 411 assassinations of women were qualified as serial and/or of sexual characteristic, by domestic violence, intimate femicides and hatred against women.[11]The response to these murders has included the criminalisation of feminicide in the country.[12]

Contemporary mechanisms of gendercide lie within sexualized violence against women; the females of "sub-Saharan Africa (Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola) in areas that are also at the heart of the" AIDS belt ",[2]are not only at-risk due to living in places where there are "current cases of large-scale rape",[2]but are also susceptible to contracting HIV. Less popularized tactics of gendercide against women include the systemic withholding of critical medical, and nutritional care, predominantly occurring "across the belt of" deep patriarchy "extending from East through West Asia and into Northern Africa";[13]here. Adam Jones, a co-founder of Gendercide Watch, an online research platform created to spread awareness, estimates that the denial of healthcare for women equates to approximately the same toll as that of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide per year.[13]

Over 200,000 die from bleeding, with many giving birth in buses or bullock carts. Lack of health education restricts commonplace medical knowledge; thus, bystanders are unable to offer assistance. In addition, the casualty rate from self-administered abortions is roughly 75,000.Eclampsia,a condition possible pre-, during, and post-childbirth, is characterized by seizures due to high blood pressure, and its effects kill another 75,000 through damage to the brain and kidneys. Moreover, 100,000 die from sepsis, contracted through untreated infections of the uterus and remaining fragments of the placenta that poison the bloodstream. Also, female casualties due to labor obstructions stagger around the 400,000 range.[citation needed]

Female genital mutilationalso proves itself a form of gendercide, with at least 200 million girls and women having been cut in 31 different countries, most prominently inMENAcountries.[14]The practice has shown to have both fatal immediate and long-term complications. Immediate complications include infection, bleeding, urinary problems, and long-term complications include vaginal and menstrual problems, decreased sexual satisfaction, and complications with childbirth, including the increased risk of newborn deaths.[15]

Additionally, women have historically been the victims of sexual violence, and rape has been repeatedly used as both a weapon of war, and a form of genocide. For example, "between the months of January and August of 1945," there were over "1.4 million" reported "rape cases". Subsequently, some "200,000 girls and women" died because of sexually transmitted diseases.[16][17]

Adam Jones drafted possible solutions to aid the crisis in Africa. He concluded treatment "would mean training some 850,000 health workers, according to UNICEF and World Health Organization reports, as well as [funding] the necessary drugs and equipment. The total cost would be US $200 million, about the price of half a dozen jet fighters".[13]

Androcide

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Main article:Androcide
See also:Violence against menandMale expendability
Pharaoh and the Midwives,James Tissotc. 1900. InExodus 1:15-21,PuahandShiphrahwere commanded by Pharaoh to kill all of the newborn baby boys, but they disobeyed.

Androcide is the systematic killing of men or boys for various reasons, usually cultural.[18]Androcide may happen during war to reduce an enemy's potential pool of soldiers. According to the Global Justice Center, perpetrators of genocide often target men and boys first or give them greater priority, and they may also suffer "other acts of violence... such as torture, rape, and enslavement" that tend to be obscured by a focus on the killings themselves.[19]

Examples include the 1988Anfal campaignagainst Kurdish males that were considered "battle-aged" (or approximately ages 15–50)[20][21]in IraqiKurdistan.While many of these deaths took place after the Kurdish men were captured and processed at a concentration camp, the worst instances of the gendercide happened at the end of the campaign (August 25 – September 6, 1988).[22]

Another incident of androcide was theSrebrenica massacreof approximately 8,000 Bosniak men and boys on July 12, 1995, ruled as an act of genocide by the International Court of Justice.[23][24]From the morning of July 12, Serb forces began gathering men and boys from the refugee population in Potočari and holding them in separate locations, and as the refugees began boarding the buses headed north towards Bosniak-held territory, Serb soldiers separated men of military age who were trying to clamber aboard. Occasionally, younger and older men were stopped (some as young as 14 or 15).[25][26][27]

Individual men also fall victim to honor killings. Male honor killings are often carried out by family members to prevent dishonor from falling onto families; reasons for male honor killings range from sexuality to gender identity.[28][29]

According to genocide scholar Adam Jones, "non-combatant men have been and continue to be the most frequent targets of mass killing and genocidal slaughter, as well as a host of lesser atrocities and abuses."[2]

Third gender

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Main article:Transgender genocide

Gendercide againstthird genderpeople is the systemic killing of people who do not fit within thegender binary.Deborah Mirandauses the term gendercide to identify the Spanish colonial practice of systemically targetingjoyas(the Spanish term for third gender people) in an attempt to exterminate them.[30]Qwo-Li Driskill writes how this violence was waged against people now understood astwo-spirit.[31]

In 1513 at Santa Clara, Darien (present dayPanama), Spanish explorerVasco Nuñez de Balboaencountered about fortyIndigenousmen dressed as women. He commanded his soldiers to execute them through making them prey for theirwar dogs,which were specially bredmastiffsorgreyhounds.They were dismembered and eaten alive by the dogs. Third gender people from around the area were rounded up in service of Spanish authority. Miranda writes that "the Spanish had made it clear that to tolerate, harbor, or associate with the third gender meant death."[30]

In his 1775 memoir,SpanishsoldierPedro Fageswrote that about two or threejoyascould be identified in eachIndigenous Californianvillage and were "held in great esteem" in their communities. Fages sought to initiate a swift reduction of thejoyas,writing "we place our trust in God and expect that these accursed people will disappear with the growth of themissions.The abominable vice will be eliminated to the extent that theCatholic faithand all the other virtues are firmly implanted there, for the glory of God and the benefit of those poor ignorants. "[30]

By region

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Europe

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In Europe, there are many different types of gendercide.

Most recent instances of mass gendercide in Europe have resulted from sociopolitical motions, as "military strategies". For example, during the 1999 war in Kosovo, "battle age" ethnic-Albanian men were detained and killed in mass as a part of a "Serb military strategy".[2]

Historically, from the 15th to the 18th century, girls, women, and some men fell victim to the frenzied cultural phenomena of witch-hunts. It is estimated that upwards of 100,000 trials took place, and from those trials, 60,000 individuals were executed.[32]

Individual instances of gendercide also continue to permeate European society, ranging to individual murders, honor killings, to war-related deaths.

Asia

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When compared to Europe, Asia has a staggeringly different sex-ratio. In Qatar, a middle-eastern country, there are a reported 299 males for every 100 females. The ratio is primarily due to large immigrant populations of largely male temporary workers[33]or the pervading cultural sentiment of males being more desirable than females.[34]Men are seen as more useful, and women as costly burdens. Such sentiments have led to increased rates of female infanticide across the continent, especially in countries such as India.[6]

And though honor killings occur everywhere, they occur most commonly in Asian countries like India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.[35]Experts explain that such murders are performed in order to protect the cultural concept of familial honor; things dishonorable enough to warrant such actions can range from sexuality, divorce, to gender identity.[36]

Africa

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Gendercide across Africa is as ranged as any other continent. Gendercide through systematic governmental efforts have been carried out across African countries over the centuries. For example, there exists the Rwandan genocide in which 800,000 were killed, and 250,000 girls and women were systematically raped by individuals infected with HIV/AIDs virus, resulting in even more death, and a continued issue with the disease even to this day.[37]

Gendercide also exists in Africa through the form of female genital mutilation–a procedure performed on both infants and girls that can result in numerous immediate and longterm complications and even death.

Similarly to Europe, witch-hunts prove a form of gendercide across Africa. It is reported that both men and women fall victim to witch-hunts, but women are more heavily targeted.[38]

See also

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Main article:Outline of genocide studies

References

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  1. ^abWarren, Mary Anne (1985-01-01).Gendercide: The Implications of Sex Selection.Rowman & Allanheld.ISBN978-0-8476-7330-8.
  2. ^abcdeJones, Adam(2000)."Gendercide and Genocide".Journal of Genocide Research.2(2).Taylor & Francis:185–211.doi:10.1080/713677599.S2CID143867857.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-08-27.Retrieved2023-08-27.
  3. ^"Origin of femicide: First recorded in 1820–30".www.dictionary.com.Archived from'femicide' at dictionary.com the originalon 2019-05-09.Retrieved8 September2019.{{cite web}}:Check|url=value (help)
  4. ^United Nations Population Fund 2011.Archived2011-10-11 at theWayback Machinewww.unfpa.orgaccessed 8 September 2019
  5. ^"The War on Baby Girls: Gendercide".The Economist.4 March 2010. Archived fromthe originalon 2018-06-14.
  6. ^abcSoken-Huberty, Emmaline (2020-04-18)."What is Gendercide?".Human Rights Careers.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-11-10.Retrieved2022-12-01.
  7. ^"Gendercide in China Statistics Statistics About Gendercide in China".All Girls Allowed.Archived fromthe originalon 2019-03-27.Retrieved2012-03-22.
  8. ^"Girls killed at birth in some poor parts of India".Baltimore Sun.22 February 1994.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-11-29.Retrieved2022-11-29.
  9. ^Laurence, Jeremy."The full extent of India's 'gendercide'".The Independent.Archived fromthe originalon 2017-12-01.Retrieved8 September2019.
  10. ^"Mexico: Justice fails in Ciudad Juárez and the city of Chihuahua".Amnesty International.28 February 2005. Archived fromthe originalon 3 March 2012.Retrieved19 March2012.
  11. ^"Feminicidio"[Femicide].INEGI(in Spanish). Encuentro Internacional de Estadística de Género. Archived fromthe originalon 28 March 2010.Retrieved19 September2017.
  12. ^Garita Vílchez, Ana Isabel."Cuadro No.6. Elementos del tipo penal. Chile. Código Penal"[Table No. 6. Elements of the criminal type. Chile. Criminal Code](PDF).La regulación del delito de feminicidio/feminicio en América Latina y El Caribe[The regulation of the crime of femicide/femicide in Latin America and the Caribbean] (in Spanish). Ciudad de Panamá, Panamá. p. 48.ISBN978-1-936291-74-8.Archived(PDF)from the original on 27 July 2018.Retrieved19 September2017.
  13. ^abcJones, Adam(March 2013). "Gendercide: Examining gender-based crimes against women and men".Clinics in Dermatology.31(2): 226–229.doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2011.09.001.PMID23438385.
  14. ^"Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) Statistics".UNICEF.Archivedfrom the original on 2019-05-26.Retrieved2022-11-29.
  15. ^"Female genital mutilation".World Health Organization.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-01-29.Retrieved2022-11-29.
  16. ^"IN PICTURES: How German women suffered largest mass rape in history by Soviets".Al Arabiya English.2018-03-11.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-12-01.Retrieved2022-12-01.
  17. ^"rape - Rape as a weapon of war | Britannica".www.britannica.com.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-12-01.Retrieved2022-12-01.
  18. ^Liao, Fang-Lian; Green, Tamara M. (1991). "The Greek and Latin Roots of English".TESOL Quarterly.25(4): 724.doi:10.2307/3587092.ISSN0039-8322.JSTOR3587092.
  19. ^Ashraph, Sareta; Radhakrishnan, Akila."BEYOND KILLING: Gender, Genocide, & Obligations Under International Law"(PDF).Global Justice Centre.p. 12. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2021-02-27.
  20. ^Whatever Happened To The Iraqi Kurds? Human Rights Watch Report, 1991Archived2017-10-23 at theWayback Machinewww.hrw.org,accessed 8 September 2019
  21. ^Dave Johns: The Crimes of Saddam Hussein, 1980 The Fayli KurdsArchived2021-04-16 at theWayback Machinewww.pbs.org,accessed 8 September 2019
  22. ^Hardi, Choman (2011).Gendered Experiences of Genocide: Anfal Survivors in Kurdistan-Iraq.Ahgate. pp. 21–22.ISBN978-0754677154.
  23. ^Srebrenica TimelineArchived2019-07-10 at theWayback Machinewww.rferl.org,accessed 8 September 2019
  24. ^Serbians Still Divided Over Srebrenica Massacrewww.npr.org,accessed 8 September 2019
  25. ^"Separation of boys, ICTY Potocari"Archived2023-02-19 at theWayback Machine26 July 2000,Icty.orgaccessed 8 September 2019
  26. ^"Separation, ICTY Sandici"Icty.orgArchived2019-03-17 at theWayback Machine
  27. ^"Separation, ICTY"Archived2023-02-19 at theWayback Machine11 July 1995Icty.orgaccessed 8 September 2019
  28. ^"Gay Iranian man dead in alleged 'honor killing,' rights group says".NBC News.11 May 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-05-12.Retrieved2022-11-29.
  29. ^"A Dark History: Honor Killings of Iran's LGBTQ Citizens".iranwire.com.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-11-29.Retrieved2022-11-29.
  30. ^abcMiranda, Deborah (2010)."Extermination of the Joyas: Gendercide in Spanish California".GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies.16(1–2): 255–260.doi:10.1215/10642684-2009-022.S2CID145480469.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-05-17.Retrieved2021-12-31– via Project MUSE.
  31. ^Qwo-Li, Driskill (2016).Asegi Stories: Cherokee Queer and Two-Spirit Memory.University of Arizona Press.p. 54.ISBN9780816533640.
  32. ^"Gendercide Watch: European Witch-Hunts".www.faculty.umb.edu.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-10-24.Retrieved2022-12-01.
  33. ^"Global population skews male, but UN projects parity between sexes by 2050".Pew Research.31 August 2022.Archivedfrom the original on 2023-03-27.Retrieved2023-03-23.
  34. ^"Countries by Sex Ratio 2022".worldpopulationreview.com.Retrieved2022-12-01.
  35. ^"Honour Killings By Region".Archivedfrom the original on 2013-12-08.Retrieved2022-12-01.
  36. ^Janjua, Haroon (2022-03-15)."The horror of honor killings".Asia Democracy Chronicles.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-12-01.Retrieved2022-12-01.
  37. ^"Factbox: Rwanda remembers the 800,000 killed on 25th anniversary of genocide".Reuters.2019-04-06.Retrieved2022-12-01.
  38. ^"Witch-hunts in contemporary sub-Saharan Africa".Gendercide.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-12-01.Retrieved2022-12-01.

Further reading

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Main article:Bibliography of Genocide studies
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