Wikipedia

Giotto

(Redirected fromGiotto di Bondone)
For other uses, seeGiotto (disambiguation).

Giotto di Bondone(Italian:[ˈdʒɔttodibonˈdoːne];c. 1267[a]– January 8, 1337),[2][3]knownmononymouslyasGiotto(UK:/ˈdʒɒtoʊ/JOT-oh,[4]US:/dʒiˈɒtoʊ,ˈdʒɔːtoʊ/jee-OT-oh,JAW-toh)[5][6]andLatinisedasGiottus,was anItalian painterandarchitectfromFlorenceduring theLate Middle Ages.He worked during theGothicandProto-Renaissanceperiod.[7]Giotto's contemporary, the banker and chroniclerGiovanni Villani,wrote that Giotto was "the most sovereign master of painting in his time, who drew all his figures and their postures according to nature" and of his publicly recognized "talent and excellence".[8]Giorgio Vasaridescribed Giotto as making a decisive break from the prevalentByzantinestyle and as initiating "the great art of painting as we know it today, introducing the technique of drawing accurately from life, which had been neglected for more than two hundred years".[9]

Giotto di Bondone
Posthumous portrait of Giotto, made between 1490 and 1550
Born
Giotto di Bondone

c. 1267
nearFlorence,Republic of Florence(present-dayItalian Republic)
DiedJanuary 8, 1337(1337-01-08)(aged 69–70)
Florence, Republic of Florence
NationalityItalian
Known forPainting,fresco,architecture
Notable workScrovegni Chapelfrescoes,Campanile
Movement

Giotto's masterwork is the decoration of theScrovegni Chapel,inPadua,also known as the Arena Chapel, which was completed around 1305. Thefrescocycle depicts theLife of the Virginand theLife of Christ.It is regarded as one of the supreme masterpieces of the Early Renaissance.[10]

The fact that Giotto painted the Arena Chapel and that he was chosen by the Commune of Florence in 1334 to design the newcampanile(bell tower) of theFlorence Cathedralare among the few certainties about his life. Almost every other aspect of it is subject to controversy: his birth date, his birthplace, his appearance, his apprenticeship, the order in which he created his works, whether he painted the famous frescoes in the UpperBasilica of Saint FrancisinAssisi,and his burial place.

Early life and career

edit
One of theLegend of St. Francisfrescoes atAssisi,the authorship of which is disputed.

Tradition says that Giotto was born in a farmhouse, perhaps at Colle di Romagnano or Romignano.[11]Since 1850, a tower house in nearbyColle Vespignanohas borne a plaque claiming the honor of his birthplace, an assertion that is commercially publicized. However, recent research has presented documentary evidence that he was born in Florence, the son of a blacksmith.[12]His father's name was Bondone. Most authors accept that Giotto was his real name, but may have been an abbreviation of Ambrogio (Ambrogiotto) or Angelo (Angelotto).[1]

In hisLives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and ArchitectsVasari states that Giotto was a shepherd boy, a merry and intelligent child who was loved by all who knew him. The great Florentine painterCimabuediscovered Giotto drawing pictures of his sheep on a rock. They were so lifelike that Cimabue approached Giotto and asked if he could take him on as an apprentice.[9]Cimabue was one of the two most highly renowned painters ofTuscany,the other beingDuccio,who worked mainly inSiena.Vasari recounts a number of such stories about Giotto's skill as a young artist. He tells of one occasion when Cimabue was absent from the workshop, and Giotto painted a remarkably lifelike fly on a face in a painting of Cimabue. When Cimabue returned, he tried several times to brush the fly off.[13]Many scholars today are uncertain about Giotto's training and consider Vasari's account that he was Cimabue's pupil a legend; they cite earlier sources that suggest that Giotto was not Cimabue's pupil.[14]The story about the fly is also suspect because it parallelsPliny the Elder's anecdote aboutZeuxispainting grapes so lifelike that birds tried to peck at them.[15]

Vasari also relates that whenPope Benedict XIsent a messenger to Giotto, asking him to send a drawing to demonstrate his skill, Giotto drew a red circle so perfect that it seemed as though it was drawn using a pair of compasses and instructed the messenger to send it to the Pope.[16]The messenger departed ill-pleased, believing that he had been made a fool of. The messenger brought other artists' drawings back to the Pope in addition to Giotto's. When the messenger related how he had made the circle without moving his arm and without the aid of compasses the Pope and his courtiers were amazed at how Giotto's skill greatly surpassed all of his contemporaries.[9]

Around 1290 Giotto married Ricevuta di Lapo del Pela (known as 'Ciuta'), the daughter of Lapo del Pela of Florence. The marriage produced four daughters and four sons, one of whom, Francesco, became a painter.[1][17]Giotto worked in Rome in 1297–1300, but few traces of his presence there remain today. By 1301, Giotto owned a house in Florence, and when he was not traveling, he would return there and live in comfort with his family. By the early 1300s, he had multiple painting commissions in Florence.[16]TheArchbasilica of St. John Lateranhouses a small portion of a fresco cycle, painted for theJubileeof 1300 called byBoniface VIII.He also designed theNavicella,a mosaic that decorated the facade ofOld St Peter's Basilica.In this period Giotto also painted theBadia Polyptych,now in theUffizi,Florence.[9]

Saint Francis receiving the Stigmata.

Cimabue went toAssisito paint several large frescoes at the newBasilica of Saint Francis of Assisi,and it is possible, but not certain, that Giotto went with him. The attribution of the fresco cycle of theLife of St. Francisin the Upper Church has been one of the most disputed in art history. The documents of the Franciscan Friars that relate to artistic commissions during this period were destroyed byNapoleon's troops, who stabled horses in the Upper Church of the Basilica, so scholars have debated the attribution to Giotto. In the absence of evidence to the contrary, it was convenient to attribute every fresco in the Upper Church not obviously by Cimabue to the better-known Giotto, including those frescoes now attributed to theMaster of Isaac.In the 1960s, art expertsMillard MeissandLeonetto Tintoriexamined all of the Assisi frescoes, and found some of the paint contained white lead—also used in Cimabue's badly deterioratedCrucifixion(c. 1283). No known works by Giotto contain this medium. However, Giotto's panel painting of theStigmatization of St. Francis(c. 1297) includes a motif of the saint holding up the collapsing church, previously included in the Assisi frescoes.[18]

The authorship of a large number of panel paintings ascribed to Giotto by Vasari, among others, is as broadly disputed as the Assisi frescoes.[19]According to Vasari, Giotto's earliest works were for the Dominicans atSanta Maria Novella.They include a fresco ofThe Annunciationand an enormous suspendedCrucifix,which is about 5 metres (16 feet) high.[9]It has been dated to about 1290 and is thought to be contemporary with the Assisi frescoes.[20]Earlier attributed works are theSan Giorgio alla Costa Madonna and Child,now in theDiocesan MuseumofSanto Stefano al Ponte,Florence, and the signed panel of theStigmatization of St. Francishoused in theLouvre.

TheCrucifixionofRimini

An early biographical source,Riccobaldo of Ferrara,mentions that Giotto painted at Assisi but does not specify theSt Francis Cycle:"What kind of art [Giotto] made is testified to by works done by him in the Franciscan churches at Assisi, Rimini, Padua..."[21]Since the idea was put forward by the German art historianFriedrich Rintelen[de]in 1912,[22]many scholars have expressed doubt that Giotto was the author of the Upper Church frescoes. Without documentation, arguments on the attribution have relied upon connoisseurship, a notoriously unreliable "science",[23]but technical examinations and comparisons of the workshop painting processes at Assisi and Padua in 2002 have provided strong evidence that Giotto did not paint theSt. Francis Cycle.[24]There are many differences between it and the Arena Chapel frescoes that are difficult to account for within the stylistic development of an individual artist. It is now generally accepted that four different hands are identifiable in the Assisi St. Francis frescoes and that they came from Rome. If this is the case, Giotto's frescoes at Padua owe much to the naturalism of the painters.[1]

Giotto's fame as a painter spread. He was called to work inPaduaand also inRimini,where there remains only aCrucifixpainted before 1309 and conserved in theChurch of St. Francis.[9]It influenced the rise of the Riminese school ofGiovanniandPietro da Rimini.According to documents of 1301 and 1304, Giotto by this time possessed large estates in Florence, and it is probable that he was already leading a large workshop and receiving commissions from throughout Italy.[1]

Scrovegni Chapel

edit
Kiss of Judas,Scrovegni Chapel

Around 1305, Giotto executed his most influential work, the interior frescoes of theScrovegni ChapelinPaduathat in 2021 were declaredUNESCO World Heritagetogether with other 14th-century fresco cycles in different buildings around the city centre.[25]Enrico degli Scrovegnicommissioned the chapel to serve as family worship, burial space[26]and as a backdrop for an annually performedmystery play.[27]

The theme of the decoration isSalvation,and there is an emphasis on theVirgin Mary,as the chapel is dedicated to theAnnunciationand to the Virgin of Charity. As was common in church decoration of medieval Italy, the west wall is dominated by theLast Judgement.On either side of the chancel are complementary paintings of the angelGabrieland the Virgin Mary, depicting the Annunciation. The scene is incorporated into the cycles ofThe Life of the Blessed Virgin MaryandThe Life of Christ.Giotto's inspiration forThe Life of the Virgincycle was probably taken fromThe Golden LegendbyJacobus de VoragineandThe Life of Christdraws upon theMeditations on the Life of Christas well as the Bible. The frescoes are more than mere illustrations of familiar texts, however, and scholars have found numerous sources for Giotto's interpretations of sacred stories.[28]

Vasari, drawing on a description byGiovanni Boccaccio,a friend of Giotto's, says of him that "there was no uglier man in the city of Florence" and indicates that his children were also plain in appearance. There is a story thatDantevisited Giotto while he was painting the Scrovegni Chapel and, seeing the artist's children underfoot asked how a man who painted such beautiful pictures could have such plain children. Giotto, who according to Vasari was always a wit, replied, "I make my pictures by day, and my babies by night."[9][16]

Sequence

edit

The cycle is divided into 37 scenes, arranged around the lateral walls in three tiers, starting in the upper register with the story ofSt. JoachimandSt. Anne,the parents of the Virgin, and continuing with her early life. The life of Jesus occupies two registers. The top south tier deals with the lives of Mary's parents, the top north with her early life and the entire middle tier with the early life and miracles of Christ. The bottom tier on both sides is concerned with thePassion of Christ.He is depicted mainly in profile, and his eyes point continuously to the right, perhaps to guide the viewer onwards in the episodes. The kiss of Judas near the end of the sequence signals the close of this left-to-right procession. Below the narrative scenes in colour, Giotto also painted allegories of seven Virtues and their counterparts in monochrome grey (grisaille). Thegrisaillefrescoes are painted to look like marble statues that personify Virtues and Vices. The central allegories ofJusticeandInjusticeoppose two specific types of government: peace leading to a festival of Love and tyranny resulting in wartime rape.[29]Between the narrative scenes are quatrefoil paintings ofOld Testamentscenes, likeJonah and the Whale,that allegorically correspond to and perhaps foretell the life of Christ.

Much of the blue in the frescoes has been worn away by time. The expense of theultramarineblue pigment used required it to be painted on top of the already-dry fresco (a secco) to preserve its brilliance. That is why it has disintegrated faster than the other colours, which were painted on wet plaster and have bonded with the wall.[30]An example of the decay can clearly be seen on the robe of the Virgin, in the fresco of theNativity.

Style

edit

Giotto's style drew on the solid and classicizing sculpture ofArnolfo di Cambio.Unlike those by Cimabue and Duccio, Giotto's figures are not stylized or elongated and do not follow Byzantine models. They are solidly three-dimensional, have faces and gestures that are based on close observation, and are clothed, not in swirling formalized drapery, but in garments that hang naturally and have form and weight. He also took bold steps in foreshortening and having characters face inwards, with their backs towards the observer, creating the illusion of space. The figures occupy compressed settings with naturalistic elements, often using forcedperspectivedevices so that they resemble stage sets. This similarity is increased by Giotto's careful arrangement of the figures in such a way that the viewer appears to have a particular place and even an involvement in many of the scenes. That can be seen most markedly in the arrangement of the figures in theMocking of ChristandLamentationin which the viewer is bidden by the composition to become mocker in one and mourner in the other.

Lamentation (The Mourning of Christ),Scrovegni Chapel

Giotto's depiction of the human face and emotion sets his work apart from that of his contemporaries. When the disgraced Joachim returns sadly to the hillside, the two young shepherds look sideways at each other. The soldier who drags a baby from its screaming mother in theMassacre of the Innocentsdoes so with his head hunched into his shoulders and a look of shame on his face. The people on the road to Egypt gossip about Mary and Joseph as they go. Of Giotto's realism, the 19th-century English criticJohn Ruskinsaid, "He painted the Madonna and St. Joseph and the Christ, yes, by all means... but essentially Mamma, Papa and Baby".[1]

Famous narratives in the series include theAdoration of the Magi,in which a comet-likeStar of Bethlehemstreaks across the sky. Giotto is thought to have been inspired by the 1301 appearance ofHalley's comet,which led to the 1986space probeGiottobeing named after the artist.

Mature works

edit
Details of figures from theRaising of Drusianain the Peruzzi Chapel

Giotto worked on other frescoes in Padua, some now lost, such as those that were in theBasilica of St. Anthony[31]and thePalazzo della Ragione.[32] Numerous painters from northern Italy were influenced by Giotto's work in Padua, includingGuariento,Giusto de' Menabuoi,Jacopo Avanzi,andAltichiero.

From 1306 from 1311 Giotto was in Assisi, where he painted the frescoes in the transept area of the Lower Church of the Basilica of St. Francis, includingThe Life of Christ,Franciscan Allegoriesand the Magdalene Chapel, drawing on stories fromthe Golden Legendand including the portrait of Bishop Teobaldo Pontano, who commissioned the work. Several assistants are mentioned, including Palerino di Guido. The style demonstrates developments from Giotto's work at Padua.[1]

In 1311, Giotto returned to Florence. A document from 1313 about his furniture there shows that he had spent a period in Rome sometime beforehand. It is now thought that he produced the design for the famousNavicellamosaic for the courtyard of theOld St. Peter's Basilicain 1310, commissioned by Cardinal Giacomo orJacopo Stefaneschiand now lost to the Renaissance church except for some fragments and aBaroquereconstruction. According to the cardinal'snecrology,he also at least designed theStefaneschi Triptych(c. 1320), a double-sided altarpiece for St. Peter's, now in theVatican Pinacoteca.It shows St Peter enthroned with saints on the front, and on the reverse, Christ is enthroned, framed with scenes of themartyrdomof Saints Peter and Paul. It is one of the few works by Giotto for which firm evidence of a commission exists.[33]However, the style seems unlikely for either Giotto or his normal Florentine assistants so he may have had his design executed by anad hocworkshop of Romans.[34]

The cardinal also commissioned Giotto to decorate the apse of St. Peter's Basilica with a cycle of frescoes that were destroyed during the 16th-century renovation. According to Vasari, Giotto remained in Rome for six years, subsequently receiving numerous commissions in Italy, and in the Papal seat atAvignon,but some of the works are now recognized to be by other artists.

In Florence, where documents from 1314 to 1327 attest to his financial activities, Giotto painted an altarpiece, known as theOgnissanti Madonna,which is now on display in the Uffizi, where it is exhibited beside Cimabue'sSanta Trinita MadonnaandDuccio'sRucellai Madonna.[1]The Ognissanti altarpiece is the only panel painting by Giotto that has been universally accepted by scholars, despite the fact that it is undocumented. It was painted for the church of the Ognissanti (all saints) in Florence, which was built by an obscure religious order, known as the Humiliati.[35]It is a large painting (325 x 204 cm), and scholars are divided on whether it was made for the main altar of the church, where it would have been viewed primarily by the brothers of the order, or for the choir screen, where it would have been more easily seen by a lay audience.[36]

Ognissanti Madonna(c. 1310). Tempera on wood, 325 by 204 centimetres (128 by 80inches)Uffizi,Florence

He also painted around the time theDormition of the Virgin,now in the BerlinGemäldegalerie,and theCrucifixin theChurch of Ognissanti.[37]

The Nativity in the Lower Church, Assisi

Peruzzi and Bardi Chapels at Santa Croce

edit

According toLorenzo Ghiberti,Giotto painted chapels for four different Florentine families in thechurch of Santa Croce,but he does not identify which chapels.[38]It is only with Vasari that the four chapels are identified: theBardiChapel (Life of St. Francis), thePeruzzi Chapel(Life of St. John the BaptistandSt. John the Evangelist,perhaps including a polyptych ofMadonna with Saintsnow in the Museum of Art ofRaleigh,North Carolina) and the lost Giugni Chapel (Stories of the Apostles) and the Tosinghi Spinelli Chapel (Stories of the Holy Virgin).[39]As with almost everything in Giotto's career, the dates of the fresco decorations that survive in Santa Croce are disputed. The Bardi Chapel, immediately to the right of the main chapel of the church, was painted in true fresco, and to some scholars, the simplicity of its settings seems relatively close to those of Padua, but the Peruzzi Chapel's more complex settings suggest a later date.[40]

Giotto, Peruzzi Altarpiece, c.1322, North Carolina Museum of Art

The Peruzzi Chapel is adjacent to the Bardi Chapel and was largely painteda secco.The technique, quicker but less durable than a true fresco, has left the work in a seriously-deteriorated condition. Scholars who date the cycle earlier in Giotto's career see the growing interest in architectural expansion that it displays as close to the developments of the giottesque frescoes in the Lower Church at Assisi, but the Bardi frescoes have a new softness of colour that indicates the artist going in a different direction, probably under the influence of Sienese art so it must be later.[41]

The Peruzzi Chapel pairs three frescoes from the life ofSt. John the Baptist(The Annunciation of John's Birth to his father Zacharias; The Birth and Naming of John; The Feast of Herod) on the left wall with three scenes from the life ofSt. John the Evangelist(The Visions of John on Ephesus;The Raising of Drusiana;The Ascension of John) on the right wall. The choice of scenes has been related to both the patrons and theFranciscans.[42]Because of the deteriorated condition of the frescoes, it is difficult to discuss Giotto's style in the chapel, but the frescoes show signs of his typical interest in controlled naturalism and psychological penetration.[43]The Peruzzi Chapel was especially renowned during Renaissance times. Giotto's compositions influencedMasaccio's frescos at theBrancacci Chapel,and Michelangelo is also known to have studied them.

The Bardi Chapel depicts the life ofSt. Francis,following a similar iconography to the frescoes in the Upper Church at Assisi, dating from 20 to 30 years earlier. A comparison shows the greater attention given by Giotto to expression in the human figures and the simpler, better-integrated architectural forms. Giotto represents only seven scenes from the saint's life, and the narrative is arranged somewhat unusually. The story starts on the upper left wall withSt. Francis Renounces his Father.It continues across the chapel to the upper right wall with theApproval of the Franciscan Rule,moves down the right wall to theTrial by Fire,across the chapel again to the left wall for theAppearance at Arles,down the left wall to theDeath of St. Francis,and across once more to the posthumousVisions of Fra Agostino and the Bishop of Assisi.TheStigmatization of St. Francis,which chronologically belongs between theAppearance at Arlesand theDeath,is located outside the chapel, above the entrance arch. The arrangement encourages viewers to link scenes together: to pair frescoes across the chapel space or relate triads of frescoes along each wall. The linkings suggest meaningful symbolic relationships between different events in St. Francis's life.[44]

Campanile di Giotto(Florence)

Later works and death

edit
Engraving after a portrait ofDanteby Giotto

In 1328, the altarpiece of theBaroncelli Chapel,Santa Croce, Florence,was completed. Previously ascribed to Giotto, it is now believed to be mostly a work by assistants, includingTaddeo Gaddi,who later frescoed the chapel.[45]The next year, Giotto was called by KingRobert of AnjoutoNapleswhere he remained with a group of pupils until 1333. Few of Giotto's Neapolitan works have survived: a fragment of a fresco portraying theLamentation of Christin the church ofSanta Chiaraand theIllustrious Menthat is painted on the windows of the Santa Barbara Chapel ofCastel Nuovo,which are usually attributed to his pupils. In 1332, King Robert named him "first court painter", with a yearly pension. Also in this time period, according to Vasari, Giotto composed a series on the Bible; scenes from theBook of Revelationwere based on ideas by Dante.[46]

After Naples, Giotto stayed for a while inBologna,where he painted a Polyptych for the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli and, according to some sources, a lost decoration for the Chapel in the Cardinal Legate's Castle.[9]In 1334, Giotto was appointed chief architect toFlorence Cathedral.He designed the bell tower, known asGiotto's Campanile,begun on July 18, 1334. After Giotto's death three years later,Andrea Pisanoand finallyFrancesco Talentitook over the tower's construction, completed in 1359 and not entirely to Giotto's design.[1]Before 1337, he was inMilanwithAzzone Visconti,but no trace of works by him remains in the city. His last known work was with assistants' help: the decoration of Podestà Chapel in theBargello,Florence.[1]

Giotto appears in the writings of many contemporary authors, including Boccaccio,DanteandFranco Sacchetti.Sacchetti recounted the likely fictional incident in which a civilian commissioned Giotto to paint a shield with hiscoat of arms;Giotto instead painted the shield "armed to the teeth", complete with a sword, lance, dagger, and suit of armor. He told the man to "Go into the world a little, before you talk of arms as if you were the Duke of Bavaria", and in response was sued. Giotto countersued and won two florins.[47]InThe Divine Comedy,Danteacknowledged the greatness of his living contemporary by the words of a painter inPurgatorio(XI, 94–96): "Cimabue believed that he held the field/In painting, and now Giotto has the cry,/ So the fame of the former is obscure."[10]Giotto died in January 1337.

Burial and legacy

edit

According to Vasari,[9]Giotto was buried in the Cathedral of Florence, on the left of the entrance and with the spot marked by a white marble plaque. According to other sources, he was buried in the Church ofSanta Reparata.The apparently-contradictory reports are explained by the fact that the remains of Santa Reparata are directly beneath the Cathedral and the church continued in use while the construction of the cathedral proceeded in the early 14th century.

During an excavation in the 1970s, bones were discovered beneath the paving of Santa Reparata at a spot close to the location given by Vasari but unmarked on either level. Forensic examination of the bones by anthropologistFrancesco Mallegniand a team of experts in 2000 brought to light some evidence that seemed to confirm that they were those of a painter (particularly the range of chemicals, includingarsenicandlead,both commonly found in paint, which the bones had absorbed).[48]The bones were those of a very short man, little over four feet tall, who may have suffered from a form ofcongenital dwarfism.That supports a tradition at the Church of Santa Croce that a dwarf who appears in one of the frescoes is a self-portrait of Giotto. On the other hand, a man wearing a white hat who appears in theLast Judgementat Padua is also said to be a portrait of Giotto. The appearance of this man conflicts with the image in Santa Croce, in regards to stature.[48]

Forensic reconstruction of the skeleton at Santa Reperata showed a short man with a very large head, a large hooked nose and one eye more prominent than the other. The bones of the neck indicated that the man spent a lot of time with his head tilted backwards. The front teeth were worn in a way consistent with frequently holding a brush between the teeth. The man was about 70 at the time of death.[48]While the Italian researchers were convinced that the body belonged to Giotto and it was reburied with honour near the grave ofFilippo Brunelleschi,others have been highly sceptical.[49]Franklin Toker, a professor of art history at the University of Pittsburgh, who was present at the original excavation in 1970, says that they are probably "the bones of some fat butcher".[50]

References

edit

Footnotes

  1. ^The year of his birth is calculated from the fact thatAntonio Pucci,the town crier of Florence, wrote a poem in Giotto's honour in which it is stated that he was 70 at the time of his death. However, the word "seventy" fits into the rhyme of the poem better than any longer and more complex age so it is possible that Pucci usedartistic license.[1]

Citations

  1. ^abcdefghijSarel Eimerl,The World of Giotto,Time-Life Books.
  2. ^"Giotto's date of birth differs widely in the sources, but modern art historians consider 1267 to be the most plausible, although the years up to 1275 cannot be entirely discounted." Wolf, Norbert (2006).Giotto di Bondone, 1267–1337: The Renewal of Painting.Hong Kong: Taschen. p. 92.ISBN978-3822851609
  3. ^Giottoat theEncyclopædia Britannica
  4. ^"Giotto".Collins English Dictionary.HarperCollins.RetrievedJune 1,2019.
  5. ^"Giotto"(US) and"Giotto".LexicoUK English Dictionary.Oxford University Press.Archived fromthe originalon 2020-03-03.
  6. ^"Giotto".Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary.Merriam-Webster.RetrievedJune 1,2019.
  7. ^Hodge, Susie (2016).Art in Detail: 100 Masterpieces.New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 10.ISBN978-0-500-23954-4.He worked during the period described as Gothic or Pre-Renaissance...
  8. ^Bartlett, Kenneth R. (1992).The Civilization of the Italian Renaissance.Toronto: D.C. Heath and Company.ISBN0-669-20900-7(Paperback). p. 37.
  9. ^abcdefghiGiorgio Vasari,Lives of the Artists,trans. George Bull, Penguin Classics (1965), pp. 15–36.
  10. ^abHartt, Frederick (1989).Art: a history of painting, sculpture, architecture.Harry N. Abrams. pp. 503–506.
  11. ^Sarel Eimerl, see below, cites Colbzs le di Romagnano. However, the spelling is perhaps wrong, and the location referred to may be the site of the presentTrattoria di Romignano,in a hamlet of farmhouses in theMugello region.
  12. ^Michael Viktor Schwarz and Pia Theis, "Giotto's Father: Old Stories and New Documents",Burlington Magazine,141 (1999), 676–677, and idem,Giottus Pictor. Band 1: Giottos Leben,Vienna, 2004.
  13. ^Eimerl 1967,p. 85.
  14. ^Maginnis, Hayden B.J., "In Search of an Artist", in Anne Derbes and Mark Sandona,The Cambridge Companion to Giotto,Cambridge, 2004, 12–13.
  15. ^Dalivalle, Antonia (10 May 2019)."Giotto's Fly and the Birth of the Renaissance".thecultural.me.Recreyo Ltd.Retrieved20 September2021.
  16. ^abcEimerl 1967,p. 106.
  17. ^Giotto, and Edi Baccheschi (1969).The complete paintings of Giotto.New York: H.N. Abrams. p. 83.OCLC2616448
  18. ^Eimerl 1967,pp. 95, 106–07.
  19. ^Maginnis, "In Search of an Artist", 23–28.
  20. ^In 1312, the will of Ricuccio Pucci leaves funds to keep a lamp burning before the crucifix "by the illustrious painter Giotto". Ghiberti also cites it as a work by Giotto.
  21. ^Sarel. A. Teresa Hankey, "Riccobaldo of Ferraro and Giotto: An Update",Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes,54 (1991), 244.
  22. ^Rintelen, Friedrich,Giotto und die Giotto-apokryphen(1912).
  23. ^See, for example, Richard Offner's famous article of 1939, "Giotto, non-Giotto", conveniently collected in James Stubblebine,Giotto: The Arena Chapel Frescoes,New York, 1969 (reissued 1996), 135–155, which argues against Giotto's authorship of the frescoes. In contrast, Luciano Bellosi,La pecora di Giotto,Turin, 1985, calls each of Offner's points into question.
  24. ^Zanardi, Bruno,Giotto e Pietro Cavallini: La questione di Assisi e il cantiere medievale della pittura a fresco,Milan, 2002; Zanardi provides an English synopsis of his study in Anne Derbes and Mark Sandona,The Cambridge Companion to Giotto,New York, 2004, 32–62.
  25. ^"Padua's fourteenth-century fresco cycles, UNESCO declaration".UNESCO.Retrieved15 August2021.
  26. ^See the complaint of the Eremitani monks in James Stubblebine,Giotto: The Arena Chapel Frescoes,New York, 1969, 106–107 and an analysis of the commission by Benjamin G. Kohl, "Giotto and his Lay Patrons", in Anne Derbes and Mark Sandona,The Cambridge Companion to Giotto,Cambridge, 2004, 176–193.
  27. ^Schwarz, Michael Viktor,"Padua, its Arena, and the Arena Chapel: a liturgical ensemble",inJournal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes,Vol. 73, 2010, 39–64.
  28. ^Anne Derbes and Mark Sandona,The Usurer's Heart: Giotto, Enrico Scrovegni, and the Arena Chapel in Padua,University Park, 2008; Laura Jacobus,Giotto and the Arena Chapel: Art, Architecture and Experience,London, 2008; Andrew Ladis,Giotto's O: Narrative, Figuration, and Pictorial Ingenuity in the Arena Chapel,University Park, 2009.
  29. ^Kérchy, Anna; Liss, Attila; Szönyi, György E., eds. (2012).The Iconology of Law and Order (Legal and Cosmic).Szeged: JATEPress.ISBN978-963-315-076-4.
  30. ^Wolf, Norbert (2006).Giotto.Hong Kong; Taschen. p. 34.ISBN3822851604.
  31. ^The remaining parts (Stigmata of St. Francis,Martyrdom of Franciscans at Ceuta,CrucifixionandHeads of Prophets) are most likely from assistants.
  32. ^Finished in 1309 and mentioned in a text from 1350 byGiovanni da Nono.They had an astrological theme, inspired by theLucidator,a treatise famous in the 14th century.
  33. ^Gardner, Julian (1974). "The Stefaneschi Altarpiece: A Reconsideration".Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes.37:57–103.doi:10.2307/750834.JSTOR750834.S2CID195043668.
  34. ^White, 332, 343
  35. ^La 'Madonna d'Ognissanti' di Giotto restaurata,Florence, 1992; Julia I. Miller and Laurie Taylor-Mitchell, "TheOgnissanti Madonnaand the Humiliati Order in Florence ", inThe Cambridge Companion to Giotto,ed. Anne Derbes and Mark Sandona, Cambridge, 2004, 157–175.
  36. ^Julian Gardner, "Altars, Altarpieces and Art History: Legislation and Usage", inItalian Altarpieces, 1250–1500,ed. Eve Borsook and Fiorella Gioffredi, Oxford, 1994, 5–39; Irene Hueck, "Le opere di Giotto per la chiesa di Ognissanti", inLa 'Madonna d'Ognissanti' di Giotto restaurata,Florence, 1992, 37–44.
  37. ^Duncan Kennedy,Giotto's Ognissanti Crucifix brought back to life,BBC News, 2010-11-05. Accessed 2010-11-07
  38. ^Ghiberti,I commentari,ed. O Morisani, Naples, 1947, 33.
  39. ^Giorgio Vasari,Le vite de' più eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori Italianied. G. Milanesi, Florence, 1878, I, 373–374.
  40. ^L. Tintori and E. Borsook,The Peruzzi Chapel,Florence, 1965, 10; J. White,Art and Architecture in Italy,Baltimore, 1968, 72f.
  41. ^C. Brandi,Giotto,Milan, 1983, 185–186; L.Bellosi,Giotto,Florence, 1981, 65, 71.
  42. ^Tintori and Borsook; Laurie Schneider Adams, "The Iconography of the Peruzzi Chapel".L’Arte,1972, 1–104. (Reprinted in Andrew Ladis ed.,Giotto and the World of Early Italian ArtNew York and London, 1998, 3, 131–144); Julie F. Codell, "Giotto's Peruzzi Chapel Frescoes: Wealth, Patronage and the Earthly City",Renaissance Quarterly,41 (1988), 583–613.
  43. ^Long, Jane C. (2011). "11. Parallelism in Giotto's Santa Croce Frescoes".Parallelism in Giotto's Santa Croce Frescoes.Brill. pp. 327–353.doi:10.1163/9789004215139_032.ISBN978-9004215139.{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help).
  44. ^The concept of such linkings was first suggested for Padua by Michel Alpatoff, "The Parallelism of Giotto's Padua Frescoes",Art Bulletin,39 (1947) 149–154. It has been tied to the Bardi Chapel by Jane C. Long, "The Program of Giotto’s Saint Francis Cycle at Santa Croce in Florence",Franciscan Studies52 (1992) 85–133, and William R. Cook, "Giotto and the Figure of St. Francis", inThe Cambridge Companion to Giotto,ed. A. Derbes and M. Sandona, Cambridge, 2004, 135–156.
  45. ^Giotto, Andrew Martindale, and Edi Baccheschi (1966).The Complete Paintings of Giotto.New York: Harry N. Abrams. p. 118.OCLC963830818.
  46. ^Eimerl 1967,p. 158.
  47. ^Eimerl 1967,p. 135.
  48. ^abcIOL,September 22, 2000.
  49. ^"Critics slam Giotto burial as a grave mistake".Business Report.Independent Online. Sapa-AP. 8 January 2001.
  50. ^Johnston, Bruce (6 January 2001)."Skeleton riddle threatens Giotto's reburial".Telegraph.co.uk.Retrieved23 March2018.

Sources

edit

Further reading

edit
  • Bistoletti, Sandrina BanderaGiotto: catalogo completo dei dipinti(I gigli dell'arte; 2) Cantini, Firenze, 1989.ISBN88-7737-050-5.
  • Basile, Giuseppe(a cura di),Giotto: gli affreschi della Cappella degli Scrovegni a Padova,Skira, Milano, 2002.ISBN88-8491-229-6.
  • Bellosi, Luciano,La pecora di Giotto,Einaudi, Torino, 1985.ISBN88-06-58339-5.
  • de Castris, Pierluigi Leone,Giotto a Napoli,Electa Napoli, Napoli 2006.ISBN88-510-0386-6.
  • Cole, Bruce,Giotto and Florentine Painting, 1280–1375.New York: Harper & Row, 1976.ISBN0-06-430900-2.
  • Cole, Bruce,Giotto: The Scrovegni Chapel, Padua.New York: George Braziller, 1993.ISBN0-8076-1310-X.
  • Colvin, Sidney(1911)."Giotto".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 34–37.
  • Derbes, Anne and Sandona, Mark, eds.,A Cambridge Companion to Giotto.Cambridge University Press, 2004.ISBN978-0-521-77007-1.
  • Flores D'Arcais, Francesca,Giotto.New York: Abbeville, 2012.ISBN0789211149.
  • Frugoni, Chiara,L'affare migliore di Enrico. Giotto e la cappella degli Scrovegni(Saggi; 899). Einaudi, Torino, 2008.ISBN978-88-06-18462-9.
  • Gioseffi, Decio,Giotto architetto,Edizioni di Comunità, Milano, 1963.
  • Giotto the Painter. Vol. 1: Life (with a Collection of the Documents and Texts up to Vasari and an Appendix of Sources on the Arena Chapel), byMichael Viktor Schwarzand Pia Theis with Andreas Zajic and Michaela Zöschg; Vol. 2: Works, by Michael Viktor Schwarz; Vol. 3: Survival (Works and Practices up to Michelangelo), by Michael Viktor Schwarz, Böhlau, Vienna 2023.ISBN978-3205217015.
  • Gnudi, Cesare,Giotto(I sommi dell'arte italiana), Martello, Milano, 1958.
  • Ladis, Andrew,Giotto's O: Narrative, Figuration, and Pictorial Ingenuity in the Arena Chapel,Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania, 2009.ISBN978-0271034072.
  • Meiss, Millard,Giotto and Assisi,New York University Press, 1960.
  • Pisani, Giuliano.I volti segreti di Giotto. Le rivelazioni della Cappella degli Scrovegni,Rizzoli,Milano 2008; Editoriale Programma, 2015, pp. 1–366,ISBN978-8866433538.
  • Ruskin, John,Giotto and His Works in Padua,London, 1900 (2nd edn, 1905).
  • Tintori, Leonetto, and Meiss, Millard,The Painting of the Life of St. Francis in Assisi, with Notes on the Arena Chapel,New York University Press, 1962.
  • Sirén, Osvald,Giotto and Some of His Followers(English translation by Frederic Schenck). Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.), 1917.
  • Wolf, Norbert,Giotto di Bondone, 1267–1337: The Renewal of Painting.Los Angeles: Taschen, 2006.ISBN978-3-8228-5160-9.
edit
Wikimedia Commons has media related toGiotto di Bondone.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Giotto&oldid=1243500891"