Wikipedia

Great Learning

TheGreat LearningorDaxuewas one of the "Four Books"in Confucianism attributed to one of Confucius' disciples,Zengzi.[1]TheGreat Learninghad come from a chapter in theBook of Riteswhich formed one of theFive Classics.It consists of a short main text of the teachings of Confucius transcribed by Zengzi and then ten commentary chapters supposedly written by Zengzi.[2]The ideals of the book were attributed to Confucius, but the text was written by Zengzi after his death.

Great Learning
Chinese name
Traditional ChineseĐạiHọc
Simplified ChineseĐạiHọc
Hanyu PinyinDàxué
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinDàxué
Bopomofoㄉㄚˋ ㄒㄩㄝˊ
Gwoyeu RomatzyhDahshyue
Wade–GilesTa4Hsüeh2
IPA[tâ.ɕɥě]
Wu
RomanizationDa-ghoh
Yue: Cantonese
Yale RomanizationDaaihok
JyutpingDaai3hok3
IPA[taj˧.hɔk̚˧]
Southern Min
HokkienPOJTāi-ha̍k
Tâi-lôTāi-ha̍k
Middle Chinese
Middle ChineseDai Hæwk
Old Chinese
Baxter–Sagart (2014)*lˤa[t]-sm-kˤruk
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabetĐại Học
Chữ HánĐại học
Korean name
Hangul대학
HanjaĐại học
Transcriptions
Revised RomanizationDaehak
Japanese name
KanjiĐại học
Kanaだいがく
Transcriptions
RomanizationDaigaku

The "Four Books" were selected by theneo-ConfucianZhu Xiduring theSong dynastyas a foundational introduction to Confucianism.Examinations for the state civil servicein China came to follow his lead.

Writing and influence

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A page from aSiku Quanshumanuscript of theGreat Learningfrom the Zhejiang University
Another page from aSiku Quanshumanuscript of theGreat Learning

Confucius,who incorporated ideas from earlier philosophers, compiled or edited theClassic of Ritesand theSpring and Autumn Annals,two of theFive Classics.Confucius' student Zengzi wrote the introduction and exposition of theGreat Learning.Zengzi lived from 505 to 436 BCE. Confucius taught 100 pupils, 72 of whom mastered his teachings. It is still unclear how much his students wrote and edited.[citation needed]

TheGreat Learningdeveloped from many authors adapting to the needs and beliefs of the community at the time. TheCheng brothers,Yi(1033–1107) andHao(1032–1085) both utilized theGreat Learning'sphilosophies. Their ideas met with strong official opposition, but were reconstituted byZhu Xi.Cheng's idea ofyiwas that it was identical with nature, which he believed was essentially good. Cheng'syiemphasized the necessity of acquiring knowledge.[3]

During theSouthern Song Dynasty,Zhu Xi rearranged theGreat Learningand included it in the Four Books, along with theDoctrine of the Mean,theAnalectsof Confucius and theMencius.Zhu Xi separated theGreat Learning,which was originally a chapter in theClassic of Rites.[4]Zhu Xi organized the book as Jing followed by ten expositions. Zhu Xi was a student of Li Tong. Zhu Xi developed the Chengs' Confucian ideas and drew fromChan BuddhismandDaoism.He adapted some ideas from these competing religions into his form of Confucianism.[5]

Li Ao,a scholar, poet, and official, used and brought attention to theGreat Learning.After the Song and Yuan Dynasties, TheGreat Learningbecame a required textbook in schools and a required reading for imperial examinations.[5]During the Warring StatesXunziandMengziwere influenced by theGreat Learning.TheGreat Learningalso greatly influenced countries like Japan and Korea.[6][7]

Such critics such asLu XiangshanandWang Yangminglater disliked theGreat Learningbecause of the stress on scholarship rather than action. Wang Yangming rejected Zhu Xi's changes and returned the text to the original, from theClassic of Rites.During the Han dynasty theGreat Learningrose to prominence, and theClassic of Riteshad to be re-organized byDai DeandDai Sheng.[8]They divided the book into five sections. This included theGreat Learning,the Doctrine of the Mean, the Evolution of Rites, theYili,and the "Etiquette and Rites".[citation needed]

Han Yuand Li Ao both used TheGreat Learning.Li Ao incorporated a lot of Buddhist and Taoist ideas into his work.Zi Si– Confucius's grandson – is said to have taught Mencius and written the Doctrine of the Mean. He may also have written the beginning of theGreat Learning.Ma Rongedited theGreat Learningin the Han dynasty, giving his views of the general meaning.[9]

Principal teachings

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  • Achieving a state of "rest in the highest excellence" and refining one's moral self to "illustrious virtue" that will be an example for all people of the realm.
  • The "point of rest being known", the "goal of action can be determined", and "deliberation will be followed by the attainment of the desired end."

    Đại học chi đạo, tại minh minh đức, tại thân dân, tại chỉ ô chí thiện. Tri chỉ nhi hậu hữu định, định nhi hậu năng tĩnh, tĩnh nhi hậu năng an, an nhi hậu năng lự, lự nhi hậu năng đắc. Vật hữu bổn mạt, sự hữu chung thủy, tri sở tiên hậu, tắc cận đạo hĩ. What the Great Learning teaches, is to illustrate illustrious virtue; to renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence. The point where to rest being known, the object of pursuit is then determined; and, that being determined, a calm unperturbedness may be attained to. To that calmness there will succeed a tranquil repose. In that repose there may be careful deliberation, and that deliberation will be followed by the attainment of the desired end. Things have their root and their branches. Affairs have their end and their beginning. To know what is first and what is last will lead near to what is taught in the Great Learning.

  • Ample rest and reflection such that one achieves peace of mind. When one is calm and reflected, the Way will be revealed to them.
  • Setting priorities and knowing what is important is essential in one's quest for moral refinement, for it allows one to focus on that which is of the greatest importance and that which is in line with the Way as outlined in Confucian teachings.
  • One must bring his affairs and relationships into order and harmony. If one hopes to attain order in the state, he must first bring his own family and personal life into order through self-cultivation and the expansion of one's knowledge and the "investigation of things."
  • Each and every man is capable of learning and self-cultivation regardless of social, economic or political status. This, in turn, means that success in learning is the result of the effort of the individual as opposed to an inability to learn.
  • One must treat education as an intricate and interrelated system where one must strive for balance.No one aspect of learning is isolatedfrom the other and failure to cultivate a single aspect of one's learning will lead to the failure of learning as a whole.

Meaning of "Investigation of Things"

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The text sets up a number of controversies that have underlain Chinese philosophy and political thinking. For example, one major controversy has been to define exactly the investigation of things. What things are to be investigated and how has been one of the crucial issues ofChinese philosophy.

One of the first steps to understanding TheGreat Learningis to understand how to "investigate things". This did not consist of scientific inquiry and experimentation, but introspection, building on what is already "known" of "principle".[10]True introspection was supposed to allow the mind to become all knowing with regards to morality, relationships, civic duty and nature.[10]

TheGreat Learningand education in China

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TheGreat Learningas we know it today is the result of multiple revisions and commentaries by a number of Confucian and Neo-Confucian scholars. TheGreat Learning,along with theDoctrine of the Meanhad their beginnings as chapters within theBook of Rites.Both were removed from theBook of Ritesand designated as separate, and equally significant, works by Zhu Xi. In the winter of 1190 CE Zhu Xi published the Four Masters, a collection of theGreat Learning,Doctrine of the Mean,theMenciusand theAnalects.[11]These four texts soon became the initial basis of study in theChinese imperial examination system.Zhu Xi was prompted to refine theGreat Learningand incorporate it into the curriculum as he felt that the previously utilized Classics were lengthy and too difficult to comprehend by the common individual to be used as an educational foundation for Confucian thought.[11]Utilizing the much shorter and more comprehensible Four Books would allow Zhu to reach a much greater audience.[11]To aid in comprehension of theGreat Learning,he spent much of his life studying the book and published a series of commentaries explaining the principal teachings of the text. TheDaxueitself gets its name fromĐại nhân chi học;dàrén zhī xué,referring to the education of adults. Unlike many scholars before him, Zhu Xi presents theGreat Learningas the way of self cultivation and governance that is to be studied by all people, not only those in, or seeking, political office.[12]

Impact on education in China

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Although theImperial ExaminationSystem is no longer used as a means of determining one's place in the social hierarchy, education and the teachings of theGreat Learningremain an integral part of modern educational and political culture in China. In fact, a number of scholars believe that all education in mainland China is based on Confucianism to some degree although many individuals, students and teachers alike, are unaware of the Confucian influence on their education.The Great Learningwas written and later published as its own book, to serve as an introduction and foundational guide for the further study of Confucian texts.The Great Learningprovides a step-by-step illustration of how all aspects of society, ranging from the refinement of the self to the order within one's household or state is ultimately dependent upon the expansion of one's knowledge.[13]: 2 

Effects on education in Modern China

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  • A Valued Education:China is characterized by a great appreciation for education as it is still viewed as a means of securing a rewarding career, thus elevating an individual in terms of social status. The modern schooling system relates directly to the teachings of theGreat Learningas educational institutions represent the primary sites for the expansion of knowledge and the investigation of "things." It is quite common in China for great sums of money to be spent to secure the best possible education. Due to the high value of a quality education, illiteracy and drop-out rates throughout China are very low.[13]: 2–3 
  • Memorization:Due to the service examination system which involved the memorization and recitation of Confucian Texts, includingThe Great Learning,memorization remains a key element in Chinese learning. Throughout much of China, it is still held that one should memorize as much knowledge as they possibly can, as one is incapable of the creation of intelligent thought without first obtaining enough basic knowledge. The focus on exams and the recitation of knowledge is, however, often attributed to "surface learning," but one should note that memorization is not used in isolation, but represents only one aspect of a student's quest for knowledge and self-cultivation. This focus on memorization can be seen in the consistency in which Chinese students excel in mathematics and sciences.[13]: 4–8 
  • Working Collaboratively:Due to the Confucian values of harmony, relationship and moral cultivation as presented in theGreat Learning,students in China were traditionally taught the value of collaborative learning. To this day, group learning remains the most popular learning method throughout the bulk of China.[14]: 554–555 
  • Hard Work:The Great Learningstates that all people are to expand their knowledge and cultivate themselves. This, in turn, is often interpreted to mean that all people are capable of learning, and that failure is not a result of a lack of ability, but a lack of effort. As a result of this philosophy, Chinese students are known worldwide as being very hardworking, putting a great deal of effort into everything they do.[14]: 555 
  • A Respectful Learning Atmosphere:Due largely to the high value of a quality education and the Confucian teaching of respect for one's elders, educators in Chinese culture are treated with the utmost respect. In fact, teachers are customarily granted the same level of respect given to a parent. As a result of this level of respect for educators and the institution as a whole, students are not quick to interrupt or otherwise challenge the authority of those delivering the knowledge required for a successful future.[13]: 5, 8 

Impact on Chinese politics

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The Great Learningplayed a major role in Chinese politics as it comprised one of the texts incorporated into the Imperial service examination system. Students would be tested on their knowledge of the Five Classics and Four Books as a qualification for an occupation in political office. If a student possessed adequate knowledge of the texts, they would be awarded a prestigious place in government. These exams allow anyone of sufficient knowledge and skill to obtain a place in office, as exams were based solely on one's ability. One's social or financial status did not play a role in the exam system. The text ofThe Great Learningprovides an educational basis for those aspiring to obtain a leadership role. In addition to self-cultivation and the expansion of one's knowledge, theGreat Learninggoes into significant step-by-step detail with respect to the qualities of a proper ruler. The text then goes on to describe the projected quality and stability of the state if its ruler follows the guidelines described therein. One such passage states that a person should "cultivate himself, then regulate the family, then govern the state, and finally lead the world into peace" There are two common interpretations of this passage. One common interpretation of this passage is that before one can hope to successfully lead the people, he/she must first cultivate himself (herself) by bringing order to. One may also interpret this passage to be stating that once one has reached a sufficient level of cultivation, he/she should seek a position in office with which to lead the people of the state in accordance with the values and practices outlined in the Great Learning and other such Confucian and Neo-Confucian texts.[13]: 3 

A term used in the text, "qin-min" ( thân dân ) whichJames Legge,following Zhu Xi, amended to "xin-min" ( tân dân ) and translated "renovating the people" instead of "loving the people", became the name of thePeople First Party (Republic of China),one of the minor parties inTaiwan.[citation needed]

There are several works that were written to give commentaries on Great Learning, such asZhen Dexiu'sExpanded Meaning of the Great Learning(Daxue Yanyi) andQiu Jun'sComplement to the Expanded Meaning of the Great Learning(Daxue Yanyibu).

Textual significance

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The Great Learningis significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern Chinese thought. TheGreat Learningrepresented a key aspect of the Chinese curriculum and can be found in virtually all aspects of Chinese culture.The Great Learningwithin the Chinese curriculum acted as a "springboard" for further learning, "self cultivation and investigation of things." Through self-cultivation one can bring order and harmony to one's mind, personal life, family, state and the world as a whole. By defining the path of learning (Dao) in governmental and social terms, theGreat Learninglinks the spiritual realm with daily life, thus creating a vision of the Way (Dao) that is radically different from that of non-action as presented by Daoism.The Great Learning,on the other hand, requires action on the part of the individual towards the ultimate goal of self-cultivation through the "expansion of knowledge and the investigation of things."The Great Learningpresents Confucianism as being this-worldly rather than other-worldly. As opposed to basing its authority on an external deity, theGreat Learningbases its authority on the practices of ancient kings.

References

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Citations

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  1. ^Vương, nguyệt xuyên."Nho gia kinh điển trọng thích đích đương đại ý nghĩa ——《 đại học 》《 trung dung 》 giảng diễn lục ( chi nhất )".Duy phổ kỳ khan chuyên nghiệp bản.Retrieved20 September2021.
  2. ^Quảng tây sư phạm đại học xuất bản xã (2 January 2020).https://zhidao.baidu.com/question/1889199245138731428.html.Retrieved 20 September 2021.
  3. ^De Bary, Theodore, et al.Sources of Chinese Tradition: From Earliest Times to 1600 ColumbiaUniversity Press, 2000.
  4. ^Wertz, Richard. 2008. "Chinese Classic Texts".
  5. ^abThompson, Kirill (3 September 2015),"Zhu Xi",in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University,retrieved20 September2021
  6. ^Tucker, John (18 February 2018),"Japanese Confucian Philosophy",in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(Spring 2018 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University,retrieved20 September2021
  7. ^"Confucianism in Korea."Encyclopedia of Religion..Encyclopedia.com.8 Sep. 2021
  8. ^Müller, Max,ed. (1879). "Preface".The Sacred Books of China.The Sacred Books of the East. Vol. 3. Trans.James Legge.Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. xviii–xix.Retrieved31 May2011.
  9. ^Zisi.
  10. ^abGardner, Daniel K.The Four Books. The Teachings of the Later Confucian Tradition.Hackett Publishing. 2007.
  11. ^abcGardner, Daniel K. "Principle and Pedagogy: Chu Hsi and The Four Books."Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies,Vol. 44, No. 1 (Jun., 1984): 57–81.
  12. ^Gardner, Daniel K. "Confucian Commentary and Chinese Intellectual History." TheJournal of Asian Studies,Vol. 57, No. 2 (May, 1998): 397–422
  13. ^abcdeWang, Ting. "Understanding Chinese Culture and Learning." Diss. U of Canberra, Australia. 2006.
  14. ^abZhang, Weiyuan. "Conceptions of lifelong learning in Confucian culture: their impact on adult Learners."International Journal of Lifelong Education,Vol. 27, No. 5 (September–October, 2008): 551–557.

Bibliography

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