Kung Hsiang-hsi(Chinese:Khổng tường hi;pinyin:Kǒng Xiángxī;Wade–Giles:K'ung3Hsiang2-hsi1;11 September 1880 – 16 August 1967), often known asDr. H. H. Kung,also known as Dr. Chauncey Kung, was a Chinesebankerandpolitician.He marriedSoong Ai-ling,the eldest of the threeSoong sisters;the other two marriedPresidentSun Yat-senandPresidentChiang Kai-shek.Together with his brother-in-law,Soong Tse-ven,he was highly influential in determining the economic policies of theKuomintang-ledNationalist governmentof theRepublic of Chinain the 1930s and 1940s.
H. H. Kung | |
|---|---|
| Khổng tường hi | |
 | |
| Premier of the Republic of China | |
| In office 1 January 1938 – 11 December 1939 | |
| President | Lin Sen |
| Vice Premier | Zhang Qun |
| Preceded by | Chiang Kai-shek |
| Succeeded by | Chiang Kai-shek |
| Vice Premier of the Republic of China | |
| In office 11 December 1939 – 4 June 1945 | |
| Premier | Chiang Kai-shek T. V. Soong |
| Preceded by | Zhang Qun |
| Succeeded by | Weng Wenhao |
| In office 4 November 1933 – 1 January 1938 | |
| Premier | Lin Sen |
| Preceded by | T. V. Soong |
| Succeeded by | Zhang Qun |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Kung Hsiang-hsi 11 September 1880 Taigu,Shanxi,Qing Empire |
| Died | 16 August 1967(aged 86) Locust Valley,New York,United States |
| Nationality | Chinese |
| Political party | Kuomintang |
| Spouses | |
| Children | 4, includingKung Ling-iandDavid Kung Ling-kan |
| Alma mater | Oberlin College(B.A., LL.D.) Yale University(M.A.) |
Biography
editEarly life
edit
Kung was born during the lateQing dynastyinto a prosperous banking and trading family inTaigu County,Shanxi Province,where he attended a mission school in spite of his family's doubts. He then attended North China Union College inTongzhou,nearBeijing,where he took courses in mathematics, physics and chemistry, subjects which were not offered in traditional Chinese schools. Upon hearing of theBoxerattacks, he returned to Taigu, but his family prevented him from leaving the house. After theTaiyuan Massacre,which included members of theOberlin Band,he carried letters from several of the murdered missionaries to Beijing by hiding them between the layers of his cloth shoes. Returning to Taigu, by using the powers of theBoxer Indemnity,he distributed relief to the families of those killed, buried the dead, and confiscated the estate of a family which had supported the Boxers.[1]
In the summer of 1901,Luella Miner,a missionary and Oberlin graduate, arranged for Kung to travel to Oberlin for further study. Upon landing inSan Francisco,however, because of theChinese Exclusion Act,Kung and his companion were locked up for several weeks before the Chinese Consul-General posted bond, and they were then not allowed to go to Oberlin for another year. Their railway passage took them into Canada, but only by strong intervention from an Ohio congressman[who?]were they allowed to re-enter the United States. Kung graduated from Oberlin in 1906, then proceeded to take a master's degree in economics fromYale University.[2]
After completing his education abroad, Kung returned to his home province in China. During the 1911Xinhai Revolution,Kung mobilized forces in support ofYan Xishan,helping Yan to overthrow the authority of the Qing imperial government in Shanxi. After 1911, Kung became one of Yan's most trusted advisors, and Yan was soon recognized as the military governor of Shanxi byYuan Shikai,and effectively controlled Shanxi until 1949, when theCommuniststook control of mainland China. Kung's influence on Yan's thinking from 1911 onward was significant, and was a major factor in Yan's subsequent determination to modernize Shanxi. The reforms that Yan subsequently conducted won Yan widespread acclaim, and Shanxi gained a reputation during theWarlord Eraas being the "Model Province".[3]
After 1911, Kung helped to establish Ming Hsien, a complex of Christian schools in Taigu on the land Kung had acquired through the Boxer Indemnity. Kung became principal, and married Han Yu-mei, a fellow graduate of the North China Union College, who died of tuberculosis. In 1913, he metSoong Ai-ling,one of theSoong sisters,and married her the following year. Supporters in Oberlin established theOberlin Shansi Memorial Association,to which Kung made regular and substantial contributions.[4]
In 1922, Shanxi experienced a serious famine. Kung worked closely with theAmerican Red Crossand missionary organizations likeAmerican Mission Boardand theChina International Famine Relief Commissionto deliver relief supplies and to improve Shanxi's infrastructure to make the delivery of relief easier. According to foreign members of the Famine Relief Commission, the collective efforts of all involved were successful in preventing what otherwise would have been an "appalling calamity", and by 1923 conditions in Shanxi returned to normal.[5]
In the summer of 1926 Kung returned to the United States; during this trip he represented China at thePhiladelphia Sesquicentennialcelebrations, and Oberlin bestowed Kung anLL.D.degree.[6]
Minister in the Nationalist government
editKung was an early supporter ofSun Yat-senand theKuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party),including early leaders such asWang Jingwei.He developed close family ties. His wife was a sister ofSoong Tse-ven.Soong Ching-ling,another sister, married Sun Yat-sen in 1915 andChiang Kai-shekbecame Kung's brother-in-law in 1927 when he marriedSoong Mei-ling.[4]TheSoong sistersand their husbands had the reputation of being one of theFour Big Familiesof the time.[4]
Kung began his career in the Nationalist government of theRepublic of Chinaas Minister of Industry, holding this position from 1927-1928[7]in the Wuhan Nationalist Government, led by Wang Jingwei during theNorthern Expeditionas a leftist rival to Chiang's faction. After the fall of Wang's government, Kung served as the Minister of Industry and Commerce from 1928-1931 in the Nanking Government, and later as theMinister of Finance,[8]from 1933–1944.[9]Kung was governor of theCentral Bank of Chinafrom 1933 to 1945, and also chairman of theChina Development Finance Corporationfrom its creation in 1934.
In 1927 one of his first acts in government was to balance the national budget. To raise the capital required, Kung increased the taxes on cigarettes by 50%. Several Shanghai cigarette factories protested against these taxes with shutdowns. Kung also threatened to increase the salt tax by 28%.[10]
Kung joined the central executive committee of the KMT in 1931. He served asPremier of the Republic of Chinafrom 1 January 1938 – 20 November 1939. Kung then served as the Vice-Premier of the Executive Yuan, from 1935-1945. Kung served as China's Chief Delegate to the International Monetary & Financial Conference in 1944, where he signed the Bretton Woods Accord during theBretton Woods Conferenceat the Mount Washington Hotel, in New Hampshire, United States. This conference established theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF) and theInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development(IBRD), which today is part of theWorld BankGroup.
After his move to the central government, Kung continued to advocate for good relations between Chiang Kai-shek and Yan Xishan. Yan's opposition to Chiang during the 1930Central Plains Warcaused Yan to formally retire from all positions of leadership in Shanxi, and to flee toDalian.Kung's tireless advocacy for Yan within the central government was successful, as Chiang allowed Yan to return to Shanxi in 1931. Chiang clearly recognized Yan as thede factoruler of Shanxi by 1934.[11]
In 1933, Kung spent weeks in Germany, a German business delegation accompanied him back to China, among them Vizeadmiral a. D. Walther Kinzel, who represented Zeiss, Rheinmetall, Krupp and Loewe. In June 1933,Hans von Seecktpublished the memorandum to MarshalChiang Kai-shekon his program to industrialize and militarize China. In 1934, Kung stated, in response to the American "nationalization of silver", that "We also would like to nationalize silver but for China this is impossible because our Government is hampered by extraterritorial treaties. We do not want the price to skyrocket, for silver is vital to our national life."[12]
Kung directed the creation of the fiat currencyfabi,which replaced the silver standard in 1935.[13]: 10 The fabi experienced from inflation and hyperinflation, and its collapse during Kung's tenure resulted in his legacy as minister of finance being viewed poorly.[13]: 57–58
Diplomacy with Axis powers
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In 1937, as the Minister of Finance of the Republic of China, Kung and two other KMT officials visited Germany and were received byAdolf Hitleron 13 June.[14]Hitler told Kung, "I understand that people in China think theSoviet Unionis their friend. But from our talk I understand that you, Herr Doktor, realize the danger of Communist doctrines. "Kung also convinced Hitler to cancel a scheduled speech at a Nazi conference byPrince Chichibu,theJapanese Emperor's brother. Kung said, "I was able to make Hitler understand that Japan wanted to dominate the world... I was able to make Hitler think twice before getting too close to Japan."[15]While he was in Germany, Kung stated his "deep satisfaction" with Hitler.[16]
Hitler,Hermann GöringandHjalmar Schachtbestowed upon Kung an honorary degree, and attempted to open China's market to German exports. Hitler, Göring, and Schacht earmarked for Chinese students 100,000ℛ︁ℳ︁for studying in Germany after they persuaded an industrialist to set aside the money for that purpose. Kung, in favor of commercial credits, refused an international loan offer by Hitler.[17]
Kung also met Hjalmar Schacht while in Germany. Schacht told him that "German-Chinese friendship stemmed in good part from the hard struggle of both for independence." Kung said, "China considers Germany its best friend... I hope and wish that Germany will participate in supporting the further development of China, the opening up of its sources of raw materials, the upbringing of its industries and [its] means of transportation."[18]
Kung also visited U.S. PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltand Italian leaderBenito Mussoliniin 1937.[19]Kung said, "I thought Mussolini was doing great things for Italy... We got along well. I thought he would be a good ally of our Government."[20]
During the Second Sino-Japanese War
editBy the time of theSecond Sino Japanese War(1937–45), Kung had achieved a reputation as an exceptionally powerful and manipulative figure within theNationalist government,sometimes in alliance with his brother-in-law,Soong Tse-venand his sister-in-law,Soong Mei-ling,and sometimes in rivalry with them.[4]By the time the Nationalist government had moved toChongqing,Kung was running his own secret service.Zhou Enlai,while serving as theCommunist Party's ambassador to the KMT in Chongqing, was notably successful in gaining the confidence of Kung's advisor, Hu Egong, allowing Zhou to conduct his intelligence work more efficiently.[21]
In January 1938, Kung, a 75th-generation descendant ofConfucius,greeted his relative,Kung Te-cheng,who was also a descendant of Confucius, after Kung Te-cheng had fled toHankouafter the Japanese invasion ofShandong.After Kung Te-cheng fled, the Japanese blew up his residence onMount Tai.Timemagazine addressed Kung Te-cheng by the title "Duke Kung",and referred to his residence as the" ducal seat ".[22]
After a string of Japanese mishaps in 1938, Kung gave a radio address in which he stated that "God is helping China!" Kung's radio speech came after reports that a Japanese attempt to seize Hankou had failed; and, with constant Chinese guerrilla activity, Chinese forces had seized territory captured by Japan.[23]
In 1944, Kung gave a speech at China House in New York with one ofMencius's direct descendants,Meng Chih.Both were alumni of American universities.[24]
Chiang had lost confidence in Kung by 1944, likely because of widespread reports of corruption by Kung.[13]: 57 Kung became unpopular among many different factions of the Kuomintang and was removed from politics.[13]: 57–58 Among other issues, Kung was one of the Nationalist government insiders implicated in corruption during the 1942-1943 American Dollar Bond scandal.[13]: 73 After the 1941 Japanese declaration of war against the United States and the United Kingdom, the two allies sought to support China in a concrete way despite logistical limitations following the loss ofBritish Burma.[13]: 73 The two countries loaned significant amounts of money to the Nationalist government.[13]: 73 The Nationalist government decided to use USD$200 million to absorb excess fabi in an effort to curb inflation.[13]: 73 In theory, Chinese purchasers would use fabi to buy bonds at the official exchange rate and be paid in dollars when the bonds were redeemed following victory over Japan.[13]: 73 The American Dollar Bonds were issued on March 24, 1942.[13]: 73 The public response was poor, with few bond sales.[13]: 74 In October 1943, Kung sent a secret memorandum to Chiang Kai-shek asking that the bond sales end.[13]: 74 Subscriptions were closed on October 15, 1943 and a central bank official falsely announced that all bonds had been sold.[13]: 74 Secretly, insiders then purchased the remaining bonds using currency acquired on the black market.[13]: 74 The result was a windfall for Nationalist government insiders including Kung,Long Yun,Wei Daoming,members of theSoong family,and others.[13]: 74
In November 1944, Chiang replaced Kung withYu Hongjunas the new minister of finance.[13]: 75–76 Kung continued to hold positions as the vice president of theExecutive Yuanand head of the Central Bank of China until he was likewise removed from those positions in spring 1945.[13]: 76 Chiang nonetheless appointed Kung as the chair of the Central Bank's Board of Directors in an effort tosave face.[13]: 76 In a further effort to protect Kung, Chiang dismissed lower level finance ministry officials as scapegoats and blocked newspapers from publishing allegations of Kung's corruption in the American Dollar Bond scandal.[13]: 79
Among the KMT factions which criticized Kung in the period leading to his resignation was theGexin movement.[13]: 138
Personal life
editAfter the KMT retreated toTaiwanin 1949 at the end of theChinese Civil War,Kung moved to the United States. He died in 1967 inLocust Valley,New York.
Kung had a habit of smokingstogies.[25]Timemagazine claimed that Kung smoked "15Havana cigars"a day.[26]He was a Christian.[27][12]
Kung was a 75th generation descendant ofConfucius,as indicated by thegeneration namehsiang( tường;xiáng).[28][29]Kung's father was (Khổng phồn từ;Kǒng Fáncí;K'ung Fan-tsi;1861–1911), a 74th generation descendant of Confucius, indicated by the generation namefan( phồn;fán).
Kung first marriage was to Han Yu-mei in 1910, but she died in 1913. In 1914, Kung married his second wife,Soong Ai-ling,the eldest of theSoong sisters.[30]Kung and Soong had two sons and two daughters:[31]
- Kung Ling-i(Khổng lệnh nghi;Kong Lingyi), daughter
- David Kung Ling-kan(Khổng lệnh khản;Kong Lingkan), son[32]
- Kung Ling-chun (Khổng lệnh tuấn;Kong Lingjun),[33]daughter, also known as Kung Ling-wei ( khổng lệnh vĩ )
- Kung Ling-chie (Khổng lệnh kiệt;Kong Lingjie), son. His son Gregory Kung (Kung Teh-chi) (Kong Deji) ( khổng đức cơ ) was born from his marriage toDebra Paget.[34][35][36]
The children all have the generation nameling( lệnh;lìng) in their names to indicate that they are 76th generation descendants of Confucius.
The Kung family residential compound, a well-preserved example of mid-Qing dynastyarchitecture, is now a tourist attraction inTaigu County,Shanxi.
See also
edit
Footnotes
edit- ^Carl Jacobson, "H. H. Kung: Strengthening China through Education and the 'Oberlin Spirit'"[1]
- ^Jacobson, "H. H. Kung."
- ^Gillin 22, 45
- ^abcd"H.H. Kung," Howard Boorman, ed.Biographical Dictionary of Republican China(New York: Columbia University Press, 1968) Vol II pp. 264-65.
- ^Gillin 37
- ^"Education: Great-Grandson 72".Time.24 January 1927.ISSN0040-781X.Retrieved14 January2023.
- ^"Foreign News: Chiang's Cabinet".Time.29 October 1928.
- ^"U.S. At War: The Mission of Daddy Kung".Time.3 July 1944.
- ^"China: Thirteen Billion Blessings".Time.16 February 1942.
- ^"China: Balance or Bust".Time.18 December 1933.
- ^Gillin 120, 124
- ^ab"China: Chiang on Lid".Time.20 August 1934.
- ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstCoble, Parks M.(2023).The Collapse of Nationalist China: How Chiang Kai-shek Lost China's Civil War.Cambridge New York, NY:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-009-29761-5.
- ^Hitler and Domarus 903
- ^Pakula 340
- ^Powell 432
- ^"Business: Kung's Credits".Time.12 July 1937.
- ^Buss 405
- ^Wang 166
- ^Pakula 341
- ^Barnoun and Yu 80
- ^"Foreign News: Warlike Confucian".Time.17 January 1938.
- ^"War in China: Stars Mark the Spots".Time.29 August 1938.
- ^"Education: China House".Time.4 September 1944.
- ^"China: Swath to Success".Time.23 July 1934.
- ^"China: Soong Out".Time.6 November 1933.
- ^"China: Christian Majority".Time.7 January 1929.
- ^"China: Potent Mrs. Chiang".Time.26 November 1928.
- ^"Generalissimo and Madame Chiang Kai-Shek".Time.3 January 1938. Archived fromthe originalon 29 March 2007.
- ^Iyler 1
- ^Lily Xiao Hong Lee (2003).Trung quốc phụ nữ truyện ký từ điển: The Twentieth Century, 1912-2000.M.E. Sharpe. pp. 477–.ISBN978-0-7656-0798-0.
- ^"China: Kung Fu-tze Say".Time.26 February 1940.
- ^Frederic E. Wakeman (2003).Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Service.University of California Press. pp. 334–.ISBN978-0-520-92876-3.
- ^"Khổng tường hi trường nữ khổng lệnh nghi: Hào môn gia tộc đích tối hậu quý tộc".
- ^"K'ung Auction Recalls Soong Sisters' Legacy".
- ^Bacon, James (21 April 1962)."Debra Paget Weds Oilman, Nephew of Madame Chiang".Independent.Independent. p. 11.Retrieved11 June2015– viaNewspapers.com.
References
edit- Barnouin, Barbara and Yu Changgen.Zhou Enlai: A Political Life.Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006.ISBN962-996-280-2.Retrieved 12 March 2011.
- Buss, Claude A. (2007).War and Diplomacy in Eastern Asia(reprint ed.). Read Books.ISBN978-1-4067-7514-3.Retrieved21 May2011.
- Gillin, Donald G.Warlord: Yen Hsi-shan in Shansi Province 1911-1949.Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 1967.
- Iyer, Pico(12 April 2005)."Books: The Wild East".Time.Retrieved8 November2022.
- Hannah Pakula (2009).The Last Empress: Madame Chiang Kai-Shek and the Birth of Modern China(illustrated ed.). Simon and Schuster. p.340.ISBN978-1-4391-4893-8.Retrieved21 May2011.
h h kung hitler.
- The China Monthly Review, Volumes 90-91.Powell, J.W. 1939.Retrieved21 May2011.[2]
- Parks Coble; "H.H. Kung;" in (1998). Wang Ke-wen (ed.).Modern China: an encyclopedia of history, culture, and nationalism.Taylor & Francis.ISBN0-8153-0720-9.Retrieved21 May2011.
Further reading
edit- Seagrave, Sterling.The Soong Dynasty.Corgi Books, 1996.ISBN0-552-14108-9.
External links
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