Wikipedia

Habesha peoples

Habesha peoples(Ge'ez:ሐበሠተ;Amharic:ሐበሻ;Tigrinya:ሓበሻ;commonly used exonym:Abyssinians) is an ethnic orpan-ethnicidentifier that has been historically employed to refer toSemitic-speakingand predominantlyOriental Orthodox Christianpeoples found in the highlands ofEthiopiaandEritreabetweenAsmaraandAddis Ababa(i.e. the modern-dayAmhara,Tigrayan,Tigrinyapeoples) and this usage remains common today. The term is also used in varying degrees of inclusion and exclusion of other groups.

Habesha
Ge'ez:ሐበሠተ,romanized:Ḥäbäśät
Amharic:ሐበሻ,romanized:Häbäša
Tigrinya:ሓበሻ,romanized:Ḥabäša
Languages
Ethiopian Semitic languages
Religion
Predominately:
Oriental OrthodoxChristianity
Minorities:
Sunni Islam,ProtestantChristianity (P'ent'ay) andJudaism(Beta Israel)

Etymology

The oldest reference to Habesha was in second or third centurySabaeanengravings asḤbśtorḤbštmrecounting the South Arabian involvement of thenəgus( "king" )GDRTof ḤBŠT.[1]The term appears to refer to a group of peoples, rather than a specific ethnicity. Another Sabaean inscription describes an alliance between Shamir Yuhahmid of theHimyarite Kingdomand King`DBHof ḤBŠT in the first quarter of the third century.[1]However, South Arabian expert Eduard Glaser claimed that the Egyptian hieroglyphicḫbstjw,used in reference to "a foreign people from the incense-producing regions" (i.e.Land of Punt) by PharaohHatshepsutin 1450 BC, was the first usage of the term or somehow connected. Francis Breyer also believes the Egyptian demonym to be the source of the Semitic term.[2][3]

The first attestation of late LatinAbissensisis from the fifth century CE. The 6th-century authorStephanus of Byzantiumlater used the term "Αβασηνοί" (i.e. Abasēnoi) to refer to "an Arabian people living next to theSabaeanstogether with theḤaḍramites."The region of the Abasēnoi produce[d] myrrh, incense and cotton and they cultivate[d] a plant which yields a purple dye (probablywars,i.e.Fleminga Grahamiana). It lay on a route which leads fromZabīdon the coastal plain to the Ḥimyarite capitalẒafār.[2]Abasēnoi was located by Hermann von Wissman as a region in theJabal ḤubayshmountaininIbb Governorate,[4]perhaps related in etymology with the ḥbšSemitic root). Other place names in Yemen contain the ḥbš root, such as the Jabal Ḥabaši, whose residents are still calledal-Aḥbuš(pl. ofḤabaš).[5]The location of the Abasēnoi in Yemen may perhaps be explained by remnant Aksumite populations from the 520s conquest byKing Kaleb.King Ezana'sclaims to Sahlen (Saba) and Dhu-Raydan (Himyar) during a time when such control was unlikely may indicate an Aksumite presence or coastal foothold.[6]Traditional scholarship has assumed that the Habashat were a tribe from modern-day Yemen that migrated to Ethiopia and Eritrea. However, theSabaicinscriptions only use the term ḥbšt to the refer to the Kingdom of Aksum and its inhabitants, especially during the 3rd century, when the ḥbšt (Aksumites) were often at war with the Sabaeans and Himyraites.[5]Modern Western European languages, including English, appear to borrow this term from the post-classical formAbissiniin the mid-sixteenth century. (EnglishAbyssinis attested from 1576, andAbissiniaandAbyssiniafrom the 1620s.)[7]

Usage

Historically, the term "Habesha" represented northernEthiopian HighlandsSemitic speakingOrthodox Christians,while theCushitic-speaking peoplessuch asOromoandAgaw,as well as Semitic-speaking Muslims/Ethiopian Jews,were considered the periphery.[8][9][10][11][12][13]

According to Gerard Prunier, one very restrictive use of the term today by some Tigrayans refers exclusively to speakers ofTigrinya;however, Tigrayan oral traditions and linguistic evidence bear witness to ancient and constant relations with Amharas.[14][15]SomeGuragesocieties, such as Orthodox Christian communities whereSoddois spoken, identify as Habesha and have a strong sense of Ethiopian national identity, due in part to their ancient ties with the northern Habesha.[16]

Predominately Muslim ethnic groups in theEritrean Highlandssuch as theTigrehave historically opposed the name Habesha; Muslim Tigrinya-speakers are usually referred to asJeberti people.Another term for Muslims from theHorn of Africawas' "Al-Zaylai" ',this applied to even the empressEleni of Ethiopiadue to her ties to the state ofHadiya.[17][18][19]At the turn of the 20th century, elites of theSolomonic dynastyemployed the conversion of various ethnic groups to Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity and the imposition of the Amharic language to spread a common Habesha national identity.[20]

WithinEthiopianandEritrean diasporicpopulations, some second generation immigrants have adopted the term "Habesha" in a broader sense as a supra-national ethnic identifier inclusive of all Eritreans and Ethiopians. For those who employ the term, it serves as a useful counter to more exclusionary identities such as "Amhara" or "Tigrayan". However, this usage is not uncontested: On the one hand, those who grew up in Ethiopia or Eritrea may object to the obscuring of national specificity.[21]: 186–188 On the other hand, groups that were subjugated in Ethiopia or Eritrea sometimes find the term offensive.[22]

Origins

Ancient stone slabs withSabaeaninscriptions found atYeha,Ethiopia.

European scholars postulated that the ancient communities that evolved into the modern Ethiopian state were formed by a migration across the Red Sea ofSabaean-speaking South Arabian tribes, including one called the "Habashat ",who intermarried with the local non-Semitic-speaking peoples, in around 1,000 BC. Many held to this view because "epigraphic and monumental evidence point to an indisputable South Arabian influence suggesting migration and colonization from Yemen in the early 1st millennium BC as the main factor of state formation on the highlands. Rock inscriptions in Qohayto (Akkala Guzay, Eritrea) document the presence of individuals or small groups from Arabia on the highlands at this time."[23]It was first suggested by German orientalistHiob Ludolfand revived by early 20th-century Italian scholarConti Rossini.According to this theory, Sabaeans brought with them South Arabian letters and language, which gradually evolved into the Ge'ez language andGe'ez script.Linguists have revealed, however, that although its script developed fromEpigraphic South Arabian(whose oldest inscriptions are found in Yemen), Ge'ez is descended from a different branch of Southern Semitic,Ethiosemitic or Ethiopic sub-branch.[24]South Arabian inscriptions does not mention any migration to the west coast of the Red Sea, nor of a tribe called "Habashat." All uses of the term date to the 3rd century AD and later, when they referred to the people of the Kingdom of Aksum.[25][26]Edward Ullendorffhas asserted that the Tigrayans and the Amhara comprise "Abyssinians proper" and a "Semitic outpost," whileDonald N. Levinehas argued that this view "neglects the crucial role of non-Semitic elements in Ethiopian culture."[27]Edward UllendorffandCarlo Conti Rossini's theory thatEthiosemitic-language speakersof the northernEthiopian Highlandswere ancient foreigners from South Arabia that displaced the original peoples of the Horn has been disputed by Ethiopian scholars specializing in Ethiopian Studies such as Messay Kebede and Daniel E. Alemu who generally disagree with this theory arguing that the migration was one of reciprocal exchange, if it even occurred at all. In the 21st century, scholars have largely discounted the longstanding presumption that Sabaean migrants had played a direct role in Ethiopian civilization.[28][29][30][31][32]

Scholars have determined that the ancient Semitic language of Ethiopia was not derived from theSabaean language.Recent linguistic studies as to the origin of the Ethiosemitic languages seem to support the DNA findings of immigration from the Arabian Peninsula,[33]with a recent study using Bayesian computational phylogenetic techniques finding that contemporary Ethiosemitic languages of Africa reflect a single introduction of early Ethiosemitic from southern Arabia approximately 2,800 years ago, and that this single introduction of Ethiosemitic subsequently underwent quick diversification within Ethiopia and Eritrea.[34][24]There is also evidence of ancient Southern Arabian communities in modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea in certain localities, attested by some archaeological artifacts and ancient Sabaean inscriptions in the oldSouth Arabian alphabet.Joseph W. Michels noted based on his archeological surveying Aksumite sites that "there is abundant evidence of specific Sabean traits such as inscription style, religious ideology and symbolism, art style and architectural techniques."[35]However,Stuart Munro-Haypoints to the existence of an older D'MT kingdom, prior to any Sabaean migration c. 4th or 5th century BC, as well as evidence that Sabaean immigrants had resided in Ethiopia for little more than a few decades at the time of the inscriptions.[36]Both the indigenous languages of Southern Arabia and the Amharic and Tigrinya languages of Ethiopia belong to the large branch ofSouth Semitic languageswhich in turn is part of theAfro-Asiatic Language Family.Even though theEthiosemitic languagesare classified under the South Semitic languages branch with aCushitic languagesubstratum.

Munro-May and related scholars believe that Sabaean influence was minor, limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century. It may have represented a trading colony (trading post) or military installations in a symbiotic or military alliance between the Sabaeans and D`MT.[37][36]

In the reign of KingEzana,c. early 4th century AD, the term "Ethiopia" is listed as one of the nine regions under his domain, translated in theGreekversion of his inscription asΑἰθιοπίαAithiopía.This is the first known use of this term to describe specifically the region known today as Ethiopia (and notKushor the entire African and Indian region outside of Egypt).[2]

There are many theories regarding the beginning of the Abyssinian civilization. One theory, which is more widely accepted today, locates its origins in the Horn region.[38]At a later period, this culture was exposed toJudaicinfluence, of which the best-known examples are theQemantand Ethiopian Jews (orBeta Israel) ethnic groups, but Judaic customs, terminology, and beliefs can be found amongst the dominant culture of the Amhara and Tigrinya.[39]Some scholars have claimed that the Indian alphabets had been used to create the vowel system of theGe'ezabugida,this claim has not yet been effectively proven.[40]

History

Main article:History of Ethiopia
Abyssinia depicted on map before 1884Berlin Conferenceto divide Africa.

Abyssinian civilization has its roots in the pre-Aksumite culture.[41]An early kingdom to arise was that ofD'mtin the 8th century BC. TheKingdom of Aksum,one of the powerful civilizations of the ancient world, was based there from about 150 BC to the mid of 12th century AD. Spreading far beyond the city of Aksum, it molded one of the earliest cultures of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Architectural remains include finely carvedstelae,extensive palaces, and ancient places of worship that are still being used.

Around the time that the Aksumite empire began to decline, the burgeoning religion ofIslammade its first inroads in the Abyssinian highlands. During the firstHijrah,the companions ofMuhammadwere received in the Aksumite kingdom. TheSultanate of Shewa,established around 896, was one of the oldest local Muslim states. It was centered in the formerShewaprovince in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by theSultanate of Ifataround 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital atZeilain northernSomalia.[42]

Antiquity

Approximate realm of the ancientKingdom of Dʿmt.

Throughout history, populations in the Horn of Africa had been interacting through migration, trade, warfare and intermarriage. Most people in the region spokeAfroasiatic languages,with the family'sCushiticandSemiticbranches predominant.[43]As early as the 3rd millennium BCE, the pre-Aksumites had begun trading along the Red Sea. They mainly traded with Egypt. Earlier trade expeditions were taken by foot along the Nile Valley. The ancient Egyptians' main objective in theRed Seatrade was to acquiremyrrh.This was a commodity that the Horn region, which the ancient Egyptians referred to as theLand of Punt,had in abundance. Much of the incense is produced in Somalia to this day.

The Kingdom of Aksum may have been founded as early as 300 BCE. Very little is known of the time period between the mid-1st millennium BCE to the beginning of Aksum's rise around the 1st century CE. It is thought to be a successor kingdom ofDʿmt,a kingdom in the early 1st millennium BC most likely centered at nearbyYeha.[44]

The Kingdom of Aksum was situated in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, with its capital city in Northern Ethiopia.Axumremained its capital until the 7th century. The kingdom was favorably located near theBlue Nilebasin and the Afar depression. The former is rich in gold and the latter in salt: both materials having a highly important use to the Aksumites. Aksum was accessible to the port ofAdulis,Eritreaon the coast of the Red Sea. The kingdom traded with Egypt, India, Arabia and theByzantine Empire.Aksum's "fertile" and "well-watered" location produced enough food for its population. Wild animals included elephants and rhinoceros.[45]

From its capital, Aksum commanded the trade ofivory.It also dominated the trade route in the Red Sea leading to the Gulf of Aden. Its success depended on resourceful techniques, production of coins, steady migrations of Greco-Roman merchants, and ships landing at Adulis. In exchange for Aksum's goods, traders bid many kinds of cloth, jewelry, metals and steel for weapons.

At its peak, Aksum controlled territories as far as southern Egypt, east to theGulf of Aden,south to theOmo River,and west to the Nubian Kingdom ofMeroë.The South Arabian kingdom of the Himyarites and also a portion of western Saudi Arabia was also under the power of Aksum. Their descendants include the present-day ethnic groups known as the Amhara, Tigrayans and Gurage peoples.[citation needed]

Medieval and early modern period

After the fall of Aksum due to declining sea trade from fierce competition by Muslims and changing climate, the power base of the kingdom migrated south and shifted its capital to Kubar (near Agew). They moved southwards because, even though the Axumite Kingdom welcomed and protected the companions of Muhammad to Ethiopia, who came as refugees to escape the persecution of the ruling families of Mecca and earned the friendship and respect of Muhammad. Their friendship deteriorated when South-Arabians invaded the Dahlak islands through the port of Adulis and destroyed it, which was the economic backbone for the prosperous Aksumite Kingdom. Fearing of what recently occurred, Axum shifted its capital near Agew[clarification needed]In the middle of the sixteenth centuryAdal Sultanatearmies led byHararleaderAhmed Ibrahiminvaded Habesha lands in what is known as the"Conquest of Habasha".[46][47]Following Adal invasions, the southern part of the Empire was lost to Oromo and Muslim state ofHadiyathus scattered Habesha like the Gurage people were cut off from the rest of Abyssinia.[48]In the late sixteenth century the nomadic Oromo people penetrated the Habesha plains occupying large territories during theOromo migrations.[49][50]Abyssinian warlords often competed with each other for dominance of the realm. The Amharas seemed to gain the upper hand with the accession of Yekuno Amlak of Ancient Bete Amhara in 1270, after defeating the Agaw lords of Lasta (in those days a non-Semitic-speaking region of Abyssinia)

EmperorYohannes IVwith his son and heir, RasAraya Selassie Yohannes.

The Gondarian dynasty, which since the 16th century had become the centre of Royal pomp and ceremony of Abyssinia, finally lost its influence as a result of the emergence of powerful regional lords, following the murder ofIyasu I,also known as Iyasu the Great. The decline in the prestige of the dynasty led to the semi-anarchic era ofZemene Mesafint( "Era of the Princes" ), in which rival warlords fought for power and theYejju Oromoenderases(Amharic:እንደራሴ,"regents" ) had effective control. Theemperorswere considered to be figureheads. Until a young man named Kassa Haile Giorgis also known asEmperor Tewodrosbrought end toZemene Mesafintby defeating all his rivals and took the throne in 1855. The Tigrayans made only a brief return to the throne in the person ofYohannes IVin 1872, whose death in 1889 resulted in the power base shifting back to the dominant Amharic-speaking elite. His successorMenelik IIan Emperor of Amhara origin seized power. Upon Menelik's occupation of theHarar Emirateand other neighboring states, a considerable number of natives were displaced and Abyssinians settled in their place.[51][52][53]InArsi Province,mainly inhabited by theOromo people,their land was appropriated by the Abyssinian colonizers coupled with hefty taxation which led to a revolt in the 1960s.[54]

Fasilides'CastleinGondar,Amhara Region.

Some scholars consider the Amhara to have been Ethiopia's ruling elite for centuries, represented by the Solomonic line of Emperors ending inHaile Selassie I.Marcos Lemma and other scholars dispute the accuracy of such a statement, arguing that other ethnic groups have always been active in the country's politics. This confusion may largely stem from the mislabeling of allAmharic-speakersas "Amhara", and the fact that many people from other ethnic groups have adopted Amharicnames.Another is the claim that most Ethiopians can trace their ancestry to multiple ethnic groups, including the last self-proclaimed emperorHaile Selassie Iand his Empress ItegeMenen AsfawofAmbassel.[55]

Culture

Main articles:Culture of EthiopiaandCulture of Eritrea

The Habesha developed an agricultural society, which most continue, including raising ofcamels,donkeys,andsheep.They plow using oxen. The Orthodox Church is an integral part of the culture. The church buildings are built on hills. Major celebrations during the year are held around the church, where people gather from villages all around to sing, play games, and observe the uniquemassof the church. It includes a procession through the church grounds and environs.

Coffeeis a very important ceremonial drink. The "coffee ceremony" is common to the Ethiopians and Eritreans. Beans are roasted on the spot, ground, and brewed, served thick and rich in tiny ceramic cups with no handles. This amount of coffee can be finished in one gulp if drunk cold; but, traditionally it is drunk very slowly as conversation takes place. When the beans are roasted to smoking, they are passed around the table, where the smoke becomes a blessing on the diners. The traditional food served at these meals consists ofinjera,a spongy flat bread, served withwat,a spicy meat sauce.

Houses in rural areas are built mostly from rock and dirt, the most available resources, with structure provided by timber poles. The houses blend in easily with the natural surroundings. Many times the nearest water source is more than a kilometer away from the house. In addition, people must search for fuel for their fires throughout the surrounding area.

The Habesha people have a rich heritage of music and dance, using drums and stringed instruments tuned to apentatonic scale.Arts and crafts and secular music are performed mostly by artisans, who are regarded with suspicion. Sacred music is performed and icons are painted only by men trained in monasteries.

Northern Highlander Language and literature

Further information:Ge'ez language,South Semitic languages,andEthiopian Semitic languages
TheGe'ez scripton a 15th-century Ethiopian Coptic prayer book.

Abyssinians speak languages belonging to theEthiopian Semiticbranch of theAfroasiaticfamily. Among these tongues is the classicalGe'ez language.The kingdom of Dʿmt wrote proto-Ge'ez in Epigraphic South Arabian as early as the 9th century BCE. Later, an independent script replaced it as early as the 5th century BCE.2

Ge'ez literature is considered to begin with the adoption ofChristianityin Ethiopia and Eritrea, as well as the civilization of Axum in the 4th century BCE during the reign of Ezana. While Ge'ez today is extinct and only used for liturgical purposes in theEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo ChurchandEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.Ge'ez language is ancestral toTigreandTigrinyalanguages.[56]

Some historians in the past have labelled the Ethiopian Semitic languages as theAbyssinian languages.[57]They are mainly spoken by theAmhara,theTigrayans,theTigre,theGurage,theArgobbaand theHararipeople.[58]In antiquityGe'ez-speaking people inhabited theAksumite Empire;the ancient Semitic-speakingGafatinhabited Eastern Damot (East Welega) andWestern Shewa;the Galila clan of Aymallal (Soddo) inhabitedSouthwest Shewa;theZayinhabitedEast Shewa;theHarlawho are the ancestors of Harari lived inSomalia;and the other ancient Argobba and Harari inhabitedShewa,Ifat,andAdal.[59][60][61][62]

Customs

Traditional Habeshainjera

Throughout history, various European travelers such asJeronimo Lobo,James BruceandMansfield ParkynsvisitedAbyssinia.Their written accounts about their experiences include observations and descriptions of the Abyssinian customs and manners.

Cuisine

Habesha cuisine characteristically consists of vegetable and often very spicy meat dishes, usually in the form ofwat(alsow'etorwot), a thick stew, served atopinjera,a largesourdoughflatbread,[63]which is about 50 centimeters (20 inches) in diameter and made out of fermentedteffflour.[63]People of Ethiopia and Eritrea eat exclusively with their right hands, using pieces ofinjerato pick up bites of entrées and side dishes.[63]

Habesha women in traditionalHabesha kemisperforming a folklore dance.

Fit-fit,orfir-fir,is a common breakfast dish. It is made from shreddedinjeraorkitchastir-fried with spices orwat.Another popular breakfast food isfatira.The delicacy consists of a large fried pancake made with flour, often with a layer of egg, eaten with honey.Chechebsa(orkita firfir) resembles apancakecovered withberbereandniter kibbeh,or spices, and may be eaten with a spoon. Aporridge,genfois another common breakfast dish. It is usually served in a large bowl with a dug-out made in the middle of the genfo and filled with spicedniter kibbeh.

Watbegins with a large amount of chopped redonion,which is simmered or sauteed in a pot. Once the onions have softened,niter kebbeh(or, in the case of vegan dishes,vegetable oil) is added. Following this,berbereis added to make a spicykeiy watorkeyyih tsebhi.Turmeric is used instead ofbeberefor a milderalicha wator both are omitted when making vegetable stews,atkilt wat.Meat such asbeef(Amharic:ሥጋ,[64]səga),chicken(Amharic:ዶሮ,[65]doro) orTigrinya:ደርሆ, derho),fish(Amharic:ዓሣ,[66]asa),goatorlamb(Amharic:በግ,[67]begorTigrinya:በጊ, beggi) is also added.Legumessuch assplit peas(Amharic:ክክ,[68]kəkorTigrinya:ኪኪ, kikki) orlentils(Amharic:ምስር,[69]məsərorbirsin); orvegetablessuch aspotatoes(Amharic:ድንች,[70]Dənəch),carrotsandchard(Amharic:ቆስጣ) are also used instead in vegan dishes.

Another distinctively Habesha dish[citation needed]iskitfo(frequently spelledketfo). It consists of raw (or rare) beef mince marinated inmitmita(Amharic:ሚጥሚጣmīṭmīṭā,a very spicy chili powder similar to theberbere) andniter kibbeh.Gored goredis very similar tokitfo,but uses cubed rather than ground beef. TheEthiopian Orthodox Churchprescribes a number offasting(tsomGe'ez:ጾም,ṣōm) periods, including Wednesdays, Fridays, and the entireLentenseason; so Habesha cuisine contains many dishes that arevegan.[71]

Dress

According toLeo Africanus,a greater number of the Abyssinians historically woresheephides,with the more honourable wearing the hides oflions,tigersandounces.[72]Duarte Barbosaalso attests that their clothes being of hides as the country was in wanting of clothes.[73]Pedro Paez,aSpanishJesuitwho resided in Ethiopia, described that the peasant women wore skins like their husbands and, in some areas, some woollen cloths five or six cubits long and three wide that they call "mahâc",and they could quite fairly call it haircloth because it is much rougher than what Capuchin monks wear, as in Ethiopia they do not know how to make cloth, and the wool is not suitable for it as it is very coarse. They all go barefoot and often naked from the breasts up, with tiny glass beads of various colours strung so as to make a band two fingers in breadth around their necks.[74]

Thehabesha kemisis the traditional attire of Habesha women.[75][76]The ankle length dress is usually worn by Ethiopian and Eritrean women at formal events. It is made ofchiffon,and typically comes in white, grey or beige shades. Many women also wrap a shawl called anetelaaround the formal dress.

Thenetelaornetselais a handmade cloth manyEthiopianwomen use to cover their head and shoulders when they wear clothing made out ofchiffon,especially when attending church. It is made up of two layers of fabric, unlikegabi,which is made out of four.Kutais the male version.

AnEthiopian or Eritrean suitis the traditionalformal wearof Habesha men.[77]It consists of a long sleeve, knee-length shirt, and matching pants. Most shirts are made with a Mandarin, band, or Nehru collar. The suit is made of chiffon, which is a sheersilkorrayoncloth. Thenetelashawlor akutais wrapped around the suit.

Religion

Christianity

The Habesha empire centered inAksumandAdwawas part of the world in which Christianity grew. The arrival of Christianity in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea happened around the 4th century. The Aksumites, in fact, had been converted to Christianity hundreds of years before most of Europe. Many of their churches were cut into cliffs or from single blocks of stone, as they were inTurkeyand in parts ofGreece,where Christianity had existed from its earliest years. The church is a central feature of communities and of each family's daily life. Each community has a church with apatron saint.

Ethiopia has often been mentioned in theBible.A well-known example of this is the story of theEthiopian eunuchas written inActs(8: 27): "Then the angel of the Lord said to Philip, Start out and go south to the road that leads down from Jerusalem to Gaza. So he set out and was on his way when he caught sight of an Ethiopian. This man was a eunuch, a high official of the Kandake (Candace) Queen of Ethiopia in charge of all her treasure." The passage continues by describing how Philip helped the Ethiopian understand one passage ofIsaiahthat the Ethiopian was reading. After the Ethiopian received an explanation of the passage, he requested that Philip baptize him, which Philip obliged. QueenGersamot Hendeke VII(very similar to Kandake) was the Queen of Ethiopia from the year 42 to 52. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was founded in the 4th century bySyrianmonks. Historically, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church have had strong ties with theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria,the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria appointing the archbishop for the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church. They gained independence from theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandriain the 1950s, although theEritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Churchhas recently reforged the link.

EritreanTigrinya:A traditional wedding.
This leather painting depictsEthiopian Orthodoxpriests playingsistraand adrum

A number of unique beliefs and practices distinguish Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity from other Christian groups; for example, theArk of the Covenantis very important. Every Ethiopian church has a replica of the Ark. Also, the Ethiopian Church has a larger biblical canon than other churches.

Church services are conducted in Ge´ez, the ancient language of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Ge´ez is no longer a living language, its use now confined to liturgical contexts, occupying a similar place in Eritrean and Ethiopian church life toLatinin theRoman Catholic Church.

Other Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox practices include such things as fasting, prescribed prayers, and devotion to saints and angels. A child is never left alone until baptism and cleansing rituals are performed. Boys are baptized forty days after birth, whereas girls are baptized eighty days after birth.

Defrocked priests and deacons commonly function as diviners, who are the main healers. Spirit possession is common, affecting primarily women. Women are also the normal spirit mediums. Adebterais anitinerantlay priest figure trained by the Church as ascribe,cantor,and often as a folk healer, who may also function in roles comparable to adeaconorexorcist.Folklore and legends ascribe the role of magician to the debtera as well.

A small number of Abyssinian Christians adhere to various forms ofPentecostalismorAnabaptism,collectively known asP'ent'ay.

Similarities to Judaism and Islam

The Chapel of the Tablet at theChurch of Our Lady Mary of Zionis believed to house the originalArk of the Covenant.

The Ethiopian church places a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find in the Roman Catholic or Protestant churches, and its followers adhere to certain practices that one finds in Orthodox or ConservativeJudaism.[78]Ethiopian Christians, like some otherEastern Christians,traditionally follow dietary rules that are similar to JewishKashrut,specifically with regard to how an animal is slaughtered. Similarly,porkis prohibited, though unlike Kashrut, Ethiopian cuisine does mixdairyproducts withmeat- which in turn makes it even closer toIslamic dietary laws(seeHalal). Women are prohibited from entering the church during theirmenses;they are also expected to cover their hair with a large scarf (orshash) while in church in keeping with1 Corinthians 11.As with Orthodoxsynagogues,men and women are seated separately in the Ethiopian church, with men on the left and women on the right (when facing the altar). However, women covering their heads and separation of the sexes in the Church building officially is common to manyOriental Orthodox,Eastern Orthodoxand Catholic Christians and not unique to Judaism. Ethiopian Orthodox worshippers remove their shoes when entering a church, in accordance withExodus 3:5(in whichMoses,while viewing theburning bush,is commanded to remove his shoes while standing on holy ground). Furthermore, both theSabbath(Saturday), and the Lord's Day (Sunday) are observed as holy, although more emphasis, because of theResurrection of Jesus Christ,is laid upon the Holy Sunday.

Islam

TheMosque of the CompanionsinMassawa,reportedly Africa's oldestmosque,built byMuhammad'scompanionsin 615 C.E.

Islam in Ethiopia and Eritrea dates to 615. During that year, a group of Muslims were counseled byMuhammadto escape persecution in Mecca andmigrate to Abyssinia,which was ruled by, in Muhammad's estimation, a pious Christian king (al-najashi). Muhammad's followers crossed the Red Sea and sought refuge in the Kingdom of Aksum, possibly settling atNegash,a place in present-day Tigray Region. Moreover, Islamic tradition states thatBilal,one of the foremost companions of Muhammad, was from Abyssinia, as were manynon-Arab Companions of Muhammad;in fact, Abyssinians were the single largest non-Arab ethnic group who were Muhammad's companions. Among these was Umm Ayman who cared for Muhammad during his infancy, a woman that he referred to as "mother".[citation needed]Abyssinia was thus the earliest home outside of Arabia for the dispersal of the Islamic world faith. One third (34%) of Ethiopia's population are Muslims by last census (2007).

Most of Ethiopia and Eritrea's Muslims areSunniMuslims, much like the majority of theMuslim world,hence the beliefs and practices of the Muslims of Ethiopia and Eritrea are basically the same: embodied in theQur'anand theSunnah.There are alsoSufiorders present in Ethiopia. According to the 1994 census of Ethiopia (with similar numbers for the 1984 census), about a third of its population is adherent of Islam and members of the Muslim community can be found throughout the country. Islam in Ethiopia is the predominant religion in the regions ofSomali,Afar,Berta,and the section ofOromiaeast of theGreat Rift Valley,as well as inJimma.Islam in Eritrea is the predominant religion of all the ethnic groups except for the Tigrinya people, theBilen people,and theKunama people.[citation needed]

The most important Islamic religious practices, such as the daily ritual prayers (ṣalāt) and fasting (Arabic:صومṣawm,Ethiopicጾም,ṣom– used by local Christians as well) during the holy month ofRamadan,are observed both in urban centers as well as in rural areas, among both settled peoples and nomads. Numerous Ethiopian Muslims perform the pilgrimage toMeccaevery year.

EthiopianGurage:Celebrity singerMahmoud Ahmed.

Judaism

Main articles:Beta IsraelandFalash Mura

Judaism in Ethiopia is believed to date from very ancient times. Precisely what its early history was, however, remains obscure. The now dominantEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Churchclaims it originated from the visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon back in the 10th century BCE. This visit is mentioned in the Hebrew Scriptures (I Kings 10:1),Shebawas a kingdom that stretched from Ethiopia to the south of the Yemen. Yemen is very close to Ethiopia across the Red Sea, and it has been recorded that modern Ethiopia has been heavily influenced by the ancient Sabean kingdom. Moreover, the details of the queen's visit, including the alleged theft of the Holy Ark as well as Solomon getting her pregnant with a child who established the "Solomonic" lineage in Ethiopia, as given in Christian Ethiopian tradition, were written in theKebra Nagastthe Ethiopian chronicle of its early history. The oldest known existing copies of the book date from as far back as the 13th century. Jewish Ethiopians are mentioned in both the TorahOld Testamentas well as the ChristianNew Testament.It is clear that the Jewish presence in Ethiopia dates back at least 2,500 years.

AnEthiopian JewishIsraeliBorder Policeman

The Jewish Pre-settlement Theory essentially states that starting around the 8th century BCE until about the 5th century BCE, there was an influx of Jewish settlers both from Egypt & Sudan in the north, and southern Arabia in the east.[citation needed]

The chief Semitic languages of Ethiopia also suggest an antiquity of Judaism in Ethiopia. "There still remains the curious circumstance that a number of Abyssinian words connected with religion—Hell,idol,Easter,purification,alms—are of Hebrew origin. These words must have been derived directly from a Jewish source, for the Abyssinian Church knows the scriptures only in a Ge'ez version made from the Septuagint. "[79]

Beta Israel traditions claim that the Ethiopian Jews are descended from the lineage of Moses himself, some of whose children and relatives are said to have separated from the other Children of Israel after the Exodus and gone southwards, or, alternatively or together with this, that they are descended from the tribe of Dan, which fled southwards down the Arabian coastal lands from Judaea at the time of the breakup of the Kingdom of Israel into two kingdoms in the 10th century BCE. (precipitated by the oppressive demands ofRehoboam,King Solomon's heir), or at the time of the destruction of the northern kingdom of Israel in the 8th century BCE. Certainly there was trade as early as the time of King Solomon down along the Red Sea to the Yemen and even as far as India, according to the Bible, and there would, therefore, have been Jewish settlements at various points along the trade routes. There is definite archaeological evidence of Jewish settlements and of their cultural influence on both sides of the Red Sea well at least 2,500 years ago, both along the Arabian coast and in the Yemen, on the eastern side, and along the southern Egyptian and Sudanese coastal regions. Modern day Ethiopian Jews are adherents ofHaymanot,a sect that is close toKaraite Judaism.

Some Ethiopian Jews, especially thoselivinginIsrael,followmainstream Judaism,mainly due to the Israeli government making 'proper conversion' a prerequisite for being recognized as Jews.

See also

Notes

^The source texts, RIE 185 and 189, are unvocalized. These vocalizations are from Rainer Voigt and Francis Breyer.[80][3]

References

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