Wikipedia

Tower block

(Redirected fromHigh-rise)
"High-rise" and "Tower Block" redirect here. For other uses, seeHigh RiseandTower Block (film).
Not to be confused withSkyscraper.

Atower block,high-rise,apartment tower,residential tower,apartment block,block of flats,oroffice toweris a tallbuilding,as opposed to alow-rise buildingand is defined differently in terms of height depending on thejurisdiction.It is used as aresidential,office building,or other functions includinghotel,retail,or with multiple purposes combined. Residential high-rise buildings are also known in some varieties of English, such asBritish English,astower blocksand may be referred to asMDUs,standing formulti-dwelling units.[1][full citation needed]A very tall high-rise building is referred to as askyscraper.

A newer high-rise tower in downtownNew Brunswick,New Jersey,U.S., known as theHub City.High-rise towers often anchorcentral business districts.
High-rise towers inVilnius Central Business District,Lithuania
TheMajakkahigh-rise building inKalasatama,Helsinki,Finland

High-rise buildings became possible to construct with the invention of theelevator(lift) and with less expensive, more abundant building materials. The materials used for thestructural systemof high-rise buildings arereinforced concreteandsteel.MostNorth American–styleskyscrapershave asteel frame,while residential blocks are usually constructed of concrete. There is no clear difference between a tower block and a skyscraper, although a building with forty or more stories and taller than 150 metres (490 ft) is generally considered a skyscraper.[2]

High-rise structures pose particular design challenges forstructuralandgeotechnicalengineers, particularly if situated in aseismically activeregion or if the underlying soils have geotechnical risk factors such as highcompressibilityorbay mud.They also pose serious challenges to firefighters during emergencies in high-rise structures. New and old building design, building systems such as the buildingstandpipesystem,HVACsystems (heating, ventilation and air conditioning),fire sprinklersystems, and other things such as stairwell andelevatorevacuations pose significant problems. Studies are often required to ensure that pedestrianwind comfortand wind danger concerns are addressed. In order to allow less wind exposure, to transmit more daylight to the ground and to appear more slender, many high-rises have a design withsetbacks.

Apartment buildingshave technical and economic advantages in areas of highpopulation density,and have become a distinctive feature of housing accommodation in virtually all densely populatedurban areasaround the world. In contrast withlow-riseand single-family houses, apartment blocks accommodate more inhabitants per unit of area of land and decrease the cost ofmunicipal infrastructure.

Definition

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Various bodies have defined "high-rise":

  • Emporisdefines a high-rise as "A multi-story structure between 35–100 metres (115–328 ft) tall, or a building of unknown height from 12–39 floors."[3]
  • TheNew Shorter Oxford English Dictionarydefines a high-rise as "a building having many storeys".
  • The International Conference on Fire Safety in High-Rise Buildings defined a high-rise as "any structure where the height can have a serious impact onevacuation"[4]
  • In the U.S., theNational Fire Protection Associationdefines a high-rise as being higher than 75 feet (23 m), or about seven stories.[5]
  • Most building engineers, inspectors, architects and similar professionals define a high-rise as a building that is at least 75 feet tall.[citation needed]

History

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Sliding ladder for firefighters in 1904

High-rise apartment buildings had already appeared inantiquity:theinsulaeinAncient Romeand several other cities in theRoman Empire,some of which might have reached up to ten or more stories,[6]one reportedly having 200 stairs.[7]Because of the destruction caused by poorly built high-riseinsulaecollapsing,[8]severalRoman emperors,beginning withAugustus(r. 30 BC – 14 AD), set limits of 20–25 metres (66–82 ft) for multi-story buildings, but met with limited success,[9][10]as these limits were often ignored despite the likelihood of tallerinsulaecollapsing.[11]The lowerfloorswere typically occupied by either shops or wealthy families, while the upper stories were rented out to the lower classes.[12]SurvivingOxyrhynchus Papyriindicate that seven-story buildings even existed inprovincialtowns, such as in third century ADHermopolisinRoman Egypt.[13]

InArab Egypt,the initial capital city ofFustathoused many high-rise residential buildings, some seven stories tall that could reportedly accommodate hundreds of people.Al-Muqaddasi,in the 10th century, described them as resemblingminarets,whileNasir Khusraw,in the early 11th century, described some of them rising up to 14 stories, withroof gardenson the top story complete with ox-drawnwater wheelsforirrigatingthem.[14][15]By the 16th century,Cairoalso had high-rise apartment buildings where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them wererentedout totenants.[16]

The skyline of many importantmedievalcities was dominated by large numbers of high-rising urban towers, which fulfilled defensive but also representative purposes. The residentialTowers of Bolognanumbered between 80 and 100 at a time, the largest of which still rise to 97.2 m. InFlorence,a law of 1251 decreed that all urban buildings should be reduced to a height of less than 26 m, the regulation immediately put into effect.[17]Even medium-sized towns such asSan Gimignanoare known to have featured 72 towers up to 51 m in height.[17]

TheHakka peopleinsouthern Chinahave adoptedcommunal livingstructures designed to be easily defensible in the forms of Weilongwu ( vi long ốc ) andTulou( thổ lâu ), the latter are large, enclosed and fortified earth building, between three and five stories high and housing up to 80 families. The oldest still standing tulou dates back from the 14th century.[18]

High-rises were built in theYemenicity ofShibamin the 16th century. The houses of Shibam are all made out ofmud bricks,but about five hundred of them aretower houses,which rise five to sixteen stories high,[19]with each floor having one or twoapartments.[20][21]This technique of building was implemented to protect residents from Bedouin attacks. While Shibam has existed for around two thousand years, most of the city's houses date from the 16th century. The city has the tallest mud buildings in the world, some more than 30meters(100feet) high.[22]Shibam has been called "one of the oldest and best examples of urban planning based on the principle of vertical construction" or "Manhattanof the desert ".[21]

The engineer's definition of high-rise buildings comes from the development offire trucksin the late 19th century.Magirushad shown the firstcogwheelsliding ladder in 1864. The firstturntable ladderdrawn by horses was developed in 1892 which had a length of 25 meters. Theextension ladderwas motorized by Magirus in 1904. The definition of a maximum of 22 meters for the highest floor was common in the building regulations at the time and it is still so today in Germany. The common height for turntable ladders did later go to 32 meters (100 feet), so that 30 meter is a common limit in some building regulations today, for example in Switzerland. Any building that exceeds the height of the usual turntable ladders in a city must install additional fire safety equipment, so that these high-rise buildings have a different section in the building regulations in the world.

A residential block inSteinfurt,Westphalia,Germany, forming a "Y"

The residential tower block with its typicalconcrete constructionis a familiar feature ofModernist architecture.Influential examples includeLe Corbusier's "housing unit", hisUnité d'Habitation,repeated in various European cities starting with hisCité radieusein Marseille (1947–52), constructed ofbéton brut,rough-castconcrete,as steel for framework was unavailable in post-war France. Residential tower blocks became standard in housing urban populations displaced byslum clearancesand "urban renewal".[23]High-rise projects afterWorld War IItypically rejected the classical designs of theearly skyscrapers,instead embracing the uniforminternational style;many older skyscrapers were redesigned to suit contemporary tastes or even got demolished - such as New York'sSinger Building,once the world's tallest skyscraper. However, with the movements ofPostmodernism,New Urbanism,andNew Classical Architecture,that established since the 1980s, a more classical approach came back to global skyscraper design, that is popular today.

Other contemporary styles and movements in high-rise design includeorganic,sustainable,neo-futurist,structuralist,high-tech,deconstructivist,blob,digital,streamline,novelty,critical regionalist,vernacular,Art Deco(orArt Deco Nouveau), andneohistorist,also known asrevivalist.

Currently, the tallest high-rise apartment building in the world is theCentral Park ToweronBillionaires' RowinMidtown Manhattan,towering at 1,550 feet (470 m).

Streets in the sky

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"Streets in the sky" redirects here. For the third studio album by UK rock band The Enemy, seeStreets in the Sky.
"Street in the sky" at Park Hill

Streets in the sky is a style ofarchitecturethat emerged in Britain in the 1960s and 1970s.[24]Generally built to replace run-downterraced housing,the new designs included not only modern improvements such as insidetoilets,but also shops and other community facilities within high-rise blocks.[25]Examples of the buildings and developments areTrellick Tower,Balfron Tower,Broadwater Farm,Robin Hood GardensandKeeling Housein London,Hunslet GrangeinLeedsandPark Hill, Sheffield,and Castlefields andSouthgate Estate,Runcorn.These were an attempt to develop a new architecture, differentiated from earlier large housing estates, such asQuarry Hill flatsin Leeds.[26][27]Alison and Peter Smithsonwere the architects ofRobin Hood Gardens.[28]As another large example, in 2005 it was decided to carry out a 20-year process of demolition and replacement of dwellings with modern houses in theAylesbury Estatein south London, built in 1970.[29][30]TheHulme CrescentsinManchesterwere the largest social housing scheme in Europe when built in 1972 but lasted just 22 years. The Crescents had one of the worst reputations of any British social housing schemes and were marred by numerous design and practical problems.[31]

The ideal of Streets in the Sky often did not work in practice. Unlike an actual city street, these walkways were not thoroughfares, and often came to a dead end multiple storeys above the ground. They lacked a regular flow of passers-by, and the walkways and especially the stairwells could not be seen by anyone elsewhere, so there was no deterrent to crime and disorder. There were no "eyes on the street" as advocated byJane Jacobsin her bookThe Death and Life of Great American Cities.TheUnité d'HabitationinMarseilleprovides a more successful example of the concept, with the fifth floor walkway including a shop and café.[32]

Towers in the parkandmicrodistricts

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Debney Meadows(Flemington Estate) (1962-1965) inMelbourne.

Towers in the parkis amorphologyofmodernist[33]high-rise apartment buildings characterized by a high-rise building surrounded by a swath of landscaped land; e.g., the tower does not directly front the street.

It is based on an ideology popularised byLe Corbusierwith thePlan Voisin,an expansion of theGarden city movementaimed at reducing the problem of urban congestion. It was introduced in several large cities across the world, notably inNorth America,[33]Europe[34]andAustralia[35]as a solution for housing, especially forpublic housing,reaching a peak of popularity in the 1960s with the introduction ofprefabrication technology.

By the early 1970s, opposition to this style of towers mounted, with many, including urban planners, now referring to them as "ghettos".[36]Neighbourhoods likeSt. James Townwere originally designed to house young "swinging single" middle class residents, but the apartments lacked appeal and the area quickly became much poorer. From its early days of implementation the concept was criticised for making residents feel unsafe, including large empty common areas dominated bygangculture and crime. The layout was criticised for normalising anti-social behaviour and hampering the efforts of essential services, particularly forlaw enforcement.[37]

A panel housingmicrodistrict(П-44series) (Chertanovo Severnoye Districtof Moscow) (Late Soviet era) is built with a similar idea in mind

The history of microdistricts as an urban planning concept dates back to the 1920s, when the Soviet Union underwent rapidurbanization.Under theSoviet urban planning ideologies of the 1920s,residential complexes—compact territories with residential dwellings, schools, shops, entertainment facilities, andgreen spaces—started to prevail in urban planning practice, as they allowed for more careful and efficient planning of the rapid urban expansion. These complexes were seen as an opportunity to build a collective society,[38]an environment suitable and necessary for the new way of life.[39]

Developments by region

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Asia

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Modern panorama ofWhitefield, Bangalorein India
High-rise buildings,Hong Kong
Modern towers ofVladivostok,Russia
Road in front, skyline in background (Abu Dhabi,Middle East)

Residential tower complexes are common in Asian countries such as China, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Taiwan, Singapore, Japan, Pakistan, Iran and South Korea, as urban densities are very high. InSingaporeand urbanHong Kong,land prices are so high that a large portion of the population lives in high-rise apartments. In fact, over 60% of Hong Kong residents live in apartments, many of themcondominiums.Of them in 2020, 2,112,138 were identified residents of public housing,[40]which is 28% of the total population.

Sarah Williams Goldhagen(2012) celebrated the work of innovative architecture firms such as WOHA (based in Singapore), Mass Studies (based in Seoul), Amateur Architecture Studio (based inHangzhou, China), and the New York City-based Steven Holl in the transformation of residential towers into "vertical communities" or "vertical cities in the sky" providing aesthetic, unusually designed silhouettes on the skyline, comfortable private spaces and attractive public spaces. None of these "functional, handsome, and humane high-rise residential buildings" areaffordable housing.[41][42]

China

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Axiaoquentrance

The 2012 Pritzker Prize was awarded to Chinese architect Wang Shu. Among his winning designs is the Vertical Courtyard Apartments, six 26-story towers by his architectural firm Amateur Architecture Studio built in Hangzhou.[42]"These towers were designed to house two-story apartments, in which every inhabitant would enjoy" the illusion of living on the second floor ", accomplished by folding concrete floor planes (like" bamboo mats, "claims the firm), so that every third story opens into a private courtyard. In the larger towers, the two-story units are stacked slightly askew, adding to the visual interest of the variegated façades (Goldhagen 2012)."[41]

Japan

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Okayama prefecture"mansions"

Housing in Japanincludes various traits coming from different eras. The worddanchinow either means an employer-provided housing or has a meaning similar to "projects".For modern hi-rises, there are twoborrowedwords to make a distinction:

  • "Apaato"(アパート ) is used to describe a rather small apartment, initially made to be rented;
  • a large, modern apartment would be a "Mansion"(マンション). The" mansion "nickname is used for both residential towers and for individual condominium apartments (for being roomy, spacey enough to compare to detached houses).

South Korea

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In South Korea, the tower blocks are called Apartment Complex (아파트 단지). The first residential towers began to be built after theKorean War.The South Korean government needed to build many apartment complexes in the cities to be able to accommodate the citizens. In the 60 years since, as the population increased considerably, tower blocks have become more common. This time, however, the new tower blocks integrated shopping malls, parking systems, and other convenient facilities.

Samsung Tower PalaceinSeoul,South Korea, is the tallest apartment complex in Asia.

In Seoul, approximately 80 percent of its residents live in apartment complexes which comprise 98 percent of recent residential construction.[43]Seoul proper is noted for itspopulation density,eight times greater thanRome,though less thanManhattanand Paris. Its metropolitan area is the densest in theOECD.[44]

Europe

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See also:PanelákandPlattenbau

Central and Eastern Europe

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Osiedle Batorego inWarsaw,Poland
PaintedpaneláksinPrague, Czech Republic
Renovated apartment building from 1963 inBucharest, Romania.With the 2010s, renovation of older apartment buildings in Eastern Europe has become common, especially in countries which getEU funds.

Although someCentralandEastern Europeancountries during theinterwar period,such as theSecond Polish Republic,already started building housing estates that were considered to be of a high standard for their time, many of these structures perished during the Second World War.

Refurbished 5-storyKhrushchyovka,winter inTallinn,Estonia

In theEastern Bloc,tower blocks were constructed in great numbers to produce plenty of cheap accommodation for the growing postwar populations of theUSSRandits satellite states.This took place mostly in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, though in thePeople's Republic of Polandthis process startedeven earlierdue to the severe damages that Polish cities sustained during World War II. Throughout the former Eastern Bloc countries, tower blocks built during the Soviet years make up much of the current housing estates and most of them were built in the specificsocialist realiststyle of architecture that was dominant in the territories east of theIron Curtain:blocky buildings of that era are colloquially known asKhrushchyovka.However, there were also larger and more ambitious projects built in Eastern Europe at the time, which have since become recognisable examples of post-warmodernism;such as the largestfalowiecbuilding in thePrzymorze Wielkiedistrict ofGdańsk,with a length of 860 m (2,821.52 ft) and 1,792 flats, it is the second longest housing block in Europe.[45]

InRomania,the mass construction of standardised housing blocks began in the 1950s and 1960s with the outskirts of the cities, some of which were made up of slums.[46]Construction continued in the 1970s and 1980s, under thesystematisationprogramme ofNicolae Ceaușescu,which consisted largely of the demolition and reconstruction of existing villages, towns, and cities, in whole or in part, in order to build blocks of flats (blocuri), as a result of increasing urbanisation following an accelerated industrialisation process.[47][48]InCzechoslovakia(now theCzech RepublicandSlovakia),panelákbuilding underMarxism–Leninismresulted from two main factors: the postwar housing shortage and the ideology of theruling party.

In Eastern European countries, opinions about these buildings vary greatly, with some deeming them as eyesores on their city's landscape while others glorify them as relics of a bygone age and historical examples of unique architectural styles (such as socialist realism,brutalism,etc.).[45]Since thedissolution of the Soviet Union,and especially in the late 1990s and early 2000s, many of the former Eastern Bloc countries have begun construction of new, more expensive and modern housing. TheŚródmieścieborough ofWarsaw,the capital of Poland, has seen the development of an array of skyscrapers. Russia is also currently undergoing a dramatic buildout, growing a commercially shaped skyline. Moreover, the ongoing changes made to postwar housing estates since the 2000s in former communist countries vary – ranging from simply applying a new coat of paint to the previously grey exterior to thorough modernisation of entire buildings.[45]

In theEuropean Union,among formerWarsaw Pactstates, a majority of the population lives in flats in Latvia (65.1%), Estonia (63.8%), Lithuania (58.4%), Czech Republic (52.8%), and Slovakia (50.3%) (as of 2014,data fromEurostat).[49]However, not all flat dwellers in Eastern Europe live in Cold War-era blocks of flats; many live in buildings constructed after the fall of the Berlin Wall, and some in buildings that survived World War II.

Western Europe

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In Western Europe, there are fewer high-rise buildings because of the historic city centres. In the 1960s, developers began demolishing older buildings to replace them with modern high-rise buildings.

InBrusselsthere are numerous modern high-rise buildings in theNorthern Quarterbusiness district. The government of Belgium wants to recreateWashington, D.C.,on a small scale.

France
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La Défenseat night

There are some tall residential buildings inLa Défensedistrict, such asTour Défense 2000,even though the district is mainly "commercial". This allows the residents to walk to the nearby office buildings without using vehicles.

Great Britain
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Main article:Tower blocks in Great Britain
Argyle BuildinginGlasgow

Tower blocks were first built in the United Kingdom after theSecond World War,and were seen as a cheap way to replace 19th-century urban slums and war-damaged buildings. They were originally seen as desirable, but quickly fell out of favour as tower blocks attracted rising crime and social disorder, particularly after the collapse ofRonan Pointin 1968.[50]

Although Tower blocks are controversial and numerous examples have been demolished, many still remain in large cities. Due to lack of proper regulation, some tower blocks present a significant fire risk and even though there have been efforts to make them more safe,[51]modern safety precautions can be prohibitively expensive to retrofit. TheGrenfell Towerfire in 2017 was partly caused by council ignorance, as a local action group complained to the council about the fire hazards of the tower several years before the incident, yet remedial work had not been carried out.[52]This fire further made tower blocks less desirable to British residents.

There are old high-rise buildings built in the 1960s and 1970s in areas ofLondonsuch asTower Hamlets,Newham,Hackney,and virtually any area in London withcouncil housing.Some new high-rises are being built in areas such asCentral London,Southwark,andNine Elms.In east London, some old high-rises are being gentrified, in addition to new high-rises being built in areas such asStratfordandCanary Wharf.[citation needed]

Ireland
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Capital Dock,22-story "mixed use" building inDublin,Ireland
Republic of Ireland

The majority of residential high-rise buildings in the Republic of Ireland were concentrated in the suburb ofBallymun,Dublin.TheBallymun Flatswere built between 1966 and 1969: seven 15-story towers, nineteen 8-story blocks and ten 4-story blocks.[53]These were the "seven towers" referred to in theU2song "Running to Stand Still".[citation needed]They have since been demolished.

Inner Dublin flat complexes, typically of 4-5 storeys include Sheriff Street (demolished),Fatima Mansions(demolished and redeveloped), St Joseph's Gardens (demolished; replaced by Killarney Court flat complex), St Teresa's Gardens, Dolphin House, Liberty House, St Michael's Estate (8 storeys) and O'Devaney Gardens and a lot more mainly throughout the north and south inner city of Dublin. Suburban flat complexes were built exclusively on the northside of the city inBallymun,CoolockandKilbarrack.These flats were badly affected by a heroin epidemic that hit working-class areas of Dublin in the 1980s and early 1990s.[citation needed]

Residential tower blocks were previously uncommon outside of Dublin, but during the era of theCeltic Tigerthe largest cities such as Dublin,Cork,LimerickandGalwaywitnessed new large apartment building, although their heights have generally been restricted. Some large towns such asNavan,Drogheda,DundalkandMullingarhave also witnessed the construction of many modern apartment blocks.

Northern Ireland

Tower blocks in Northern Ireland were never built to the frequency as in cities on the island ofGreat Britain,but taller high-rises are generally more common than in the Republic of Ireland. Most tower blocks and flat complexes are found inBelfast,although many of these have been demolished since the 1990s and replaced with traditionalpublic housing units.The mid-rise Divis flats complex in west Belfast was built between 1968 and 1972. It was demolished in the early 1990s after the residents demanded new houses due to mounting problems with their flats.Divis Tower,built separately in 1966, still stands, however; and in 2007 work began to convert the former British Army base at the top two floors into new dwellings. Divis Tower was for several decades Ireland's tallest residential building, having since being surpassed by the privately ownedObel Towerin the city centre. In the north of the city, the iconic seven-tower complex in theNew Lodgeremains, although so too the problems that residents face, such as poor piping and limited sanitation. Farther north, the four tower blocks inRathcooledominate the local skyline, while in south Belfast, the tower blocks in Seymour Hill, Belvoir andFinaghyremain standing.

Most of the aforementioned high-rise flats in the city were built by theNorthern Ireland Housing Trust(NIHT) as part of overspill housing schemes, the first such development being the pair of point blocks in East Belfast'sCregaghestate. These eleven-story towers were completed in 1961 and were the first tall council housing blocks on the island of Ireland.[54]The NIHT also designed the inner city Divis Flats complex. The six-to-eight-storey deck-access flats that comprised most of the Divis estate were of poor build quality and were all demolished by the early 1990s.[55]Similar slab blocks were built by the NIHT in East Belfast (Tullycarnet) and Derry'sBogsidearea, all four of which have been demolished.

Belfast Corporationconstructed seven tower blocks on the former Victoria Barracks site in the New Lodge district. While the Corporation built somemid-riseflats as part ofslum clearanceschemes (most notably the now demolished Unity Flats and the Weetabix Flats in the Shankill area), New Lodge was its only high-rise project in the inner city; there were three more in outlying areas of the city during the 1960s, two being in Mount Vernon in North Belfast and one being in theClarawoodestate, East Belfast. TheRoyal Hospitalbuilt three thirteen-story towers for use as staff accommodation, prominently located adjacent to the M2 Motorway at Broadway. Belfast City Hospital also constructed a high-rise slab block which since privatisation has been named Bradbury Court, formerly known as Erskine House. Queens University Belfast built several eleven storey towers at its Queens Elms student accommodation. Of the three sixteen-story point blocks ofLarneBorough Council in the late 1960s, only one remains.[56]

North America

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Canada

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See also:List of tallest buildings in Canada

In Canada, largemulti-family buildingsare usually known asapartment buildingsorapartment blocksif they are rented from one common landowner, orcondominiumsorcondo towersif each dwelling unit is individually owned; they may be calledlow-rise(orwalk-up),mid-rise,high-rise,orskyscraperdepending on their height. Tall residential towers are a staple building type in all large cities. Their relative prominence in Canadian cities varies substantially, however. In general, more populated cities have more high-rises than smaller cities, due to a relative scarcity of land and a greater demand for housing.

However, some cities such asQuebec CityandHalifaxhave fewer high-rise buildings due to several factors: a focus onhistoric preservation,height restrictions, and lower growth rates. In middle-sized cities with a relatively low population density, such asCalgary,Edmonton,Winnipeg,orHamiltonthere are more apartment towers but they are greatly outnumbered bysingle-family houses.Most of the largest residential towers in Canada are found inMontreal,Toronto,andVancouver;the country's most densely populated cities.

Toronto contains the second largest concentration of high-rise apartment buildings in North America (after New York). In Canada, like in other New World countries, but unlike Western Europe, most high-rise towers are located in the city centre (or "downtown" ), where smaller, older buildings were demolished to make way inredevelopmentschemes.

United States

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See also:List of tallest buildings in the United StatesandList of tallest buildings in New York City
Central Park TowerinManhattan,New York City, the tallest residential high-rise tower in the world, December 2020

In the United States, tower blocks are commonly referred to as "midrise" or "highrise apartment buildings", depending on their height, while buildings that house fewer flats (apartments), or are not as tall as the tower blocks, are called "lowrise apartment buildings". Specifically, "midrise" buildings are as tall as the streets are wide, allowing five hours of sunlight on the street.[57]

Some of the first residential towers were theCastle Villagetowers in Manhattan, New York City, completed in 1939. Their cross-shaped design was copied in towers inParkchesterandStuyvesant Townresidential developments.

The government's experiments in the 1960s and 1970s to use high-rise apartments as a means of providing the housing solution for the poor broadly resulted in failure. Made in thetower in the parkstyle, all but a few high-risehousing projectsin the nation's largestcities,such asCabrini–GreenandRobert Taylor Homesin Chicago,Penn Southin Manhattan, and theDesire ProjectsinNew Orleans,fell victim to the "ghettofication"and are now being torn down, renovated, or replaced. Another example is the formerPruitt–Igoecomplex inSt. Louis,torn down in the 1970s.

In contrast to theirpublic housingcounterparts, commercially developed high-rise apartment buildings continue to flourish in cities around the country largely due to high land prices and the housing boom of the 2000s. TheUpper East Sidein New York City, featuring high-rise apartments, is the wealthiest urban neighborhood in the United States.

Currently, the tallest residential building in the world isCentral Park Towerlocated inMidtown Manhattan,having a height of 1,550 feet (470 m) with the highest occupied floor at 1,417 feet (432 m).[58]

Oceania

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Housing commission towers in Waterloo, Sydney, Australia
See also:List of tallest buildings in AustraliaandList of tallest buildings in Sydney

High-rise living in Australia was limited to theSydney CBDuntil the 1960s, when a short-lived fashion saw public housing tenants located in new high-rise developments, especially in Sydney and Melbourne. The buildings pictured along with four other 16-story blocks were constructed on behalf of theRoyal Australian Navyand were available to sailors and their families for accommodation. Due to social problems within these blocks the Navy left and theDepartment of Housingtook charge and flats were let to low income and immigrant families. During the 1980s many people escaping communism in Eastern bloc countries were housed in these buildings. Developers have enthusiastically adopted the term "apartment" for these new high-rise blocks, perhaps to avoid the stigma still attached to housing commission flats.

Deck access

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Deck access is a type of flat that is accessed from a walkway that is open to the elements, as opposed to flats that are accessed from fully enclosed internal corridors. Deck-access blocks of flats are usually fairly low-rise structures. The decks can vary from simple walkways, which may be covered or uncovered, to decks wide enough for small vehicles. The best-known example of deck-access flats in the UK isPark Hill, Sheffield,where the decks are wide enough to allow electric vehicles; however, the design is inspired by French Modernist architectLe Corbusier,particularly hisUnité d'habitationinMarseille.[59]

Green tower blocks

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An apartment with apergolaandsolar panelsinthe Bronx,New York City

Green tower blocks have some scheme of living plants orgreen roofs[60]orsolar panels[61]on their roofs or incorporate otherenvironmentally friendlydesign features.[62]

See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ^BICSIMcGraw-Hill Professional, 2002,ISBN0-07-138211-9
  2. ^"skyscraper".Encyclopædia Britannica.Retrieved19 September2012.
  3. ^Data Standards: high-rise building (ESN 18727)[usurped],Emporis Standards. Accessed online 16 October 2009.
  4. ^Also Murat Saatcioglu, "High-Rise Buildings in Natural Disaster", inEncyclopedia of Natural HazardsDordrecht, NL: Springer, 2016. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4399-4_168
  5. ^Hall, John R. (December 2011)."High-rise building fires"(PDF).nfpa.org.NFPA. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 11 July 2012.Retrieved10 August2012.
  6. ^Aldrete 2004,pp. 79f..
  7. ^Martial,Epigrams, 27
  8. ^Aldrete 2004,p. 78.
  9. ^Strabo,5.3.7
  10. ^Alexander G. McKay: Römische Häuser, Villen und Paläste,Feldmeilen1984,ISBN3-7611-0585-1p. 231
  11. ^Aldrete 2004,pp. 78–9.
  12. ^Aldrete 2004,pp. 79 ff..
  13. ^Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 2719, in: Katja Lembke, Cäcilia Fluck, Günter Vittmann:Ägyptens späte Blüte. Die Römer am Nil,Mainz 2004,ISBN3-8053-3276-9,p. 29
  14. ^Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1992),Islamic Architecture in Cairo,Brill Publishers,p. 6,ISBN90-04-09626-4
  15. ^Barghusen, Joan D.; Moulder, Bob (2001),Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Cairo,Twenty-First Century Books, p. 11,ISBN0-8225-3221-2
  16. ^Mortada, Hisham (2003),Traditional Islamic principles of built environment,Routledge,p. viii,ISBN0-7007-1700-5
  17. ^abWerner Müller: "dtv-Atlas Baukunst I. Allgemeiner Teil: Baugeschichte von Mesopotamien bis Byzanz", 14th ed., 2005,ISBN978-3-423-03020-5,p. 345
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  21. ^abOld Walled City of Shibam,UNESCOWorld Heritage Centre
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  23. ^possibly by Jay Thakkar, "High Rise Residential Towers", (self-published, n.d.)https://www.academia.edu/32050381/High_Rise_Residential_Tower
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  26. ^Quarry Hillat BBC Online
  27. ^"Social Engineering Through Architectural Change".Newenglishreview.org.Retrieved8 August2010.
  28. ^"Alison and Peter Smithson, Design Museum".Designmuseum.org. Archived fromthe originalon 24 November 2010.Retrieved8 August2010.
  29. ^Fletcher, Martin (20 October 2008)."Demolition of the Aylesbury Estate: a new dawn for Hell's waiting room?".The Times / The Sunday Times.
  30. ^"Aylesbury Tenants First".Aylesbury Tenants First.Retrieved8 August2010.
  31. ^Parkinson-Bailey, p.195
  32. ^The Urban Idiot (17 January 2018)."Streets in the sky".Academy of Urbanism.
  33. ^abHow to rejuvenate urban 'towers in the park',Globe and Mail, John Bentley Mays, May 12, 2011
  34. ^"Your Broadwater Farm | Tottenham Regeneration".tottenham.london.Retrieved28 December2021.
  35. ^Frykholm, H. (2023). ‘A Village Stood on End’: Anthropology and the Interior of the Modernist Tower. Fabrications, 33(2), 359–377.
  36. ^Tall Buildings, Toronto Star, August 27, 1973, C3
  37. ^OPERATION SMOKE AND MIRRORSby Jamie Kalven 6 October 2016
  38. ^Ir. M.H.H. van Dijk, IsoCaRP Congress 2003,Planning and politics
  39. ^Michael Gentile, Dept. of Social and Economic Geography,Uppsala University,Urbanism and Disurbanism in the Soviet Union[1]
  40. ^Hong Kong Housing Authority (31 March 2021)."Hương cảng phòng ốc ủy viên hội niên báo"[Hong Kong Housing Authority Annual Report](PDF).housingauthority.gov.hk/.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 4 February 2022.Retrieved4 February2022.
  41. ^ab Williams Goldhagen, Sarah(18 May 2012)."Living High".New Republic.Retrieved28 June2012.
  42. ^ab Meinhold, Bridgette (25 May 2012)."2012 Pritzker Prize Awarded to Wang Shu – First Chinese Architect to Win the Award".inhabitat.com.Retrieved28 June2012.
  43. ^Cho, Minsuk (2008)."Two Houses in Seoul"(PDF).In Ruby, Ilka; Ruby, Andreas (eds.).Urban Trans Formation.Ruby Press. p. 25. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 28 August 2011.Retrieved28 June2012.
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  46. ^Elleh, Nnamdi (28 November 2014).Reading the Architecture of the Underprivileged Classes.Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 212–.ISBN978-1-4094-6786-1.
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General and cited sources

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